Cancer Risk Reduction and Early Detection Behaviors Among Black Men: Focus on Learned Helplessness

11%/0 greater risk of developing cancer and a 25%/ lower 5-year survival rate than the general population (Boyd, 1989). The cancer death rate among Blacks, 27% higher than the general population, has increased by approximately 50% in the past 30 years (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 1989). This represents a 10%0 increase among Black women and a 77%7 increase in Black men. Research has demonstrated that the disparity in cancer incidence and mortality between Blacks and the general population cannot be explained by cultural and racial specific differences. Although there is no conclusive evidence to support any one theoretical explanation that can account for the differential burden of cancer incidence and mortality among Blacks, differences in economic status, occupation, access to health care, and life-style habits are said to be among the principal factors (American Cancer Society [ACS], 1986; Bloom, Hayes, Saunder, & Flatt, 1987). It has been asserted that given what is known currently about cancer control through risk reduction, early diagnosis, and treatment, cancer incidence could be substantially reduced and cancer mortality could be essentially cut in half. According to the NCI, about 80% of cancer cases are linked to the way people lead their lives (National Institutes of Health [NIH], 1987). Yet only 38% of the general population believe that life-style is related to cancer. And, 50% of the population believe there is not much a person can do to protect himself or herself from cancer (NCI, 1989a). Prevailing attitudes of pessimism and fatalism regarding cancer among Black men and women have been reported in the literature (ACS, 1981; ACS, 1989; Cardwell & Collier, 1981; Denniston, 1981; Freeman, 1989; Guillory, 1987; Hall & Bell, 1985; Michielutte & Diseker, 1982; Price, Desmond & Wallace, 1988; USDHHS, 1987). Research has suggested that Black men and women are generally more fearful than the general population of cancer. Although they acknowledge its