Effects of Maximizing Time Spent and Minimizing Time Needed for Learning on Pupil Achievement

Baseline estimates of time spent in learning and time needed for learning were obtained for 118 third-grade children on tasks that included short reading passages and 10-item criterion tests. Two groups of children were identified on the basis of baseline measures—children who spent less time than needed to learn the task (Group 1; n = 63) and children who spent as much time or more time than needed (Group 2; n = 55). For both groups, time spent and time needed were manipulated through the use of incentives. Maximizing time spent resulted in significantly higher 1-day retention scores for Group 1, but had no effect on retention for Group 2. Minimizing time needed yielded higher retention for both groups. Results are discussed in the context of recent research on instructional time and student achievement.