Digital inequalities among internet users before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparison from two cross-sectional surveys in Slovenia

The further digitization of society during the COVID-19 pandemic had implications for differential internet access and related social and economic outcomes. The pandemic impacted all three levels of the digital divides, as it affected how people accessed the internet, their internet skills and usage patterns. The literature, however, provides only a limited understanding about how these changes are interrelated at different levels of the digital divides. Building on the model of compound and sequential digital exclusion, this study examines the sequential pathways between the three digital divide levels before and during the pandemic, using two datasets obtained through cross-sectional surveys conducted in 2018 and 2022 from representative samples of Slovenian internet users ( N 2018 = 814, N 2022 = 802). Path and multi-group analysis results confirmed strong sequential pathways between the three digital divide levels before and during the pandemic, suggesting that despite a significant increase in internet access and breadth of uses, digital inequalities among users continue to persist following the pandemic. Moreover, the interaction effects of age and education on the relationships between the three digital divide levels were found to be almost unchanged, indicating that the pandemic did not affect the role of social inequalities in shaping digital inequalities. • Three levels of digital inequalities before and during the pandemic are explored. • Analysis of two representative cross-sectional survey datasets from 2018 and 2022. • Significant increase in internet access and uses did not lessen digital inequalities. • Almost invariant interaction effect of age and education with digital inequalities. • The pandemic did not reduce digital inequalities spurred by social inequalities.