From carbon capture to carbon-based products: A review of CO₂-to-X pathways

The increasing concentration of atmospheric CO₂ has intensified the need for sustainable carbon management strategies. This review explores the emerging field of CO₂ utilization, emphasizing the conversion of CO₂ into value-added products (CO₂-to-X) and integrating the CO₂-to-carbon pathway. We provide a comprehensive analysis of chemical and electrochemical conversion routes, highlighting the thermodynamic, kinetic, and technological challenges associated with each approach. The CO₂-to-X pathways encompass fuels, chemicals, polymers, and materials, demonstrating the potential to simultaneously mitigate emissions and generate economic value. Particular attention is given to the CO₂-to-carbon pathway, including the production of solid carbon materials such as graphite, carbon nanotubes, and graphene via the Bosch process, which offer high-value applications in energy storage, construction, and advanced manufacturing. By synthesizing recent advances and identifying gaps in the literature, this paper provides a roadmap for researchers and industry practitioners aiming to transform CO₂ from an environmental liability into a resource. The study underscores the dual potential of CO₂ utilization: reducing greenhouse gas emissions while fostering innovative pathways for carbon-based products, thereby contributing to a circular carbon economy.