What drives learning in the educational metaverse? unpacking the interplay of affective, cognitive, and interactive factors in mathematics education

This study investigates the complex interplay of factors influencing learning effectiveness within metaverse-enabled educational environments, where existing research reports heterogeneous outcomes. Through a pedagogy-driven virtual learning environment, “Math City,” which synthesizes game-based learning and the 5E inquiry model in a collaborative multiplayer architecture, we examine how affective, cognitive, and interactional dimensions jointly shape student experiences. A multivariate analysis was conducted focusing on seven key variables: Virtual Environment (VE), Learning Experience (LEx), Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), Perceived Satisfaction (PS), Attitude towards Technology Use (ATU), Interactivity (INT), and Anxiety towards Technology Use (ANX). Data were collected via a validated questionnaire from 158 secondary and tertiary students and analyzed using correlational and hierarchical regression techniques in SPSS. The results indicate that perceived ease of use and interactivity, mediated by virtual environment design, are significant predictors of learning experience and satisfaction, while learner attitude and anxiety exert notable moderating effects. These findings clarify the contingent mechanisms underlying metaverse learning efficacy and provide evidence-based guidance for the design of immersive pedagogical platforms in STEM education.