Jambanja:Ideological Ambiguities in the Politics of Land and Resource Ownership in Zimbabwe*

Zimbabwe's current restructuring of land and resource ownership has not only been violent and coercive, but also disorganised and divisive. In its call for radical land redistribution, the state has increasingly resorted to authoritarian nationalism, invoking identity politics. This has resulted in new conceptions about rights and power – conceptions that basically uphold racial and ethnic politics and the pre-eminence of majority over minority rights. The current processes have also rekindled important questions about citizenship, identity, nationhood, rights and entitlement in post-independence Africa, issues that have been a subject of intense debate among various African scholars. Focusing on the experiences of 'invisible minorities', such as Coloureds and descendants of immigrants from Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique, this article discusses both the ambiguities and contradictions in the current exercise, as well as newly emerging notions about race, identity, nation and citizenship neglected by most political and academic commentators. I argue that the resulting policy positions, and particularly the current emphasis on race and nativism, have not only supported contradictory perspectives on justice, rights, citizenship and nationality but have also structured the debate on these issues in very narrow and problematic terms. More important, the historical processes unfolding in Zimbabwe have engendered feelings of exclusion and insecurity, especially among the subject minorities marginalised by the current processes. Notes * Jambanja is Zimbabwean urban lingua franca or slang for 'violence' or 'chaos'. Popularised after 2000, officials and the public used the word to describe the violent and chaotic farm occupations. 1 D.G. Clarke, Agricultural and Plantation Workers in Rhodesia (Gweru, Mambo Press, 1977), p. 32. 2 See B. Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and Labour in Salisbury, 1953–1965', in B. Raftopoulos and T. Yoshikuni (eds), Sites of Struggle: Essays in Zimbabwe's Urban History (Harare, Weaver, 1999), p. 131; T. Ranger, The African Voice in Southern Rhodesia, 1898–1930 (London, Heinemann, 1970), p. 148. 3 See Government of Zimbabwe, Census 2002, Zimbabwe Preliminary Report (Harare, Central Statistical Office, 2002); J. Muzondidya, 'Towards a Historical Understanding of the Making of the Coloured Community in Zimbabwe, 1890–1920', Identity, Culture and Politics, 3, 2 (December 2002), p. 84. 4 By the mid-1920s locally born Coloureds outnumbered Coloureds of foreign origin. See Southern Rhodesia, Report of the Director of Census Regarding the Census of Population taken on the 11th of May 1926, Part 3 and Final (Salisbury, Government Printer, 1928), p. 38. 5 See F. Dotson & L. Dotson, The Indian Minority of Zambia, Rhodesia and Malawi (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 35–42. 6 See Census 2002, Zimbabwe. 7 The role of the colonial state in the construction of racial identities in Africa in general and southern Africa in particular has been well documented in influential studies such as: T.O. Ranger, The Invention of Tribalism in Zimbabwe (Gweru, Mambo Press, 1985); L. Vail (ed.), The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (London, James Currey, 1989); S. Marks and S. Trapido (eds), The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in 20th Century South Africa (London, Longman, 1987); H. Adam and H. Giliomee, Ethnic Power Mobilized (New Haven, CN, Yale University Press, 1979). 8 The Firearms Act (1891) defined native as 'any person being, or being a descendant of, any aboriginal native of Africa'; Asian as 'all Chinese, Indians and Malays or their descendants' and Coloured as 'any person other than an Asiatic or native who has the blood of an Asiatic or native'. 'European' referred to people of Caucasian or European descent who mainly constituted white society. See Southern Rhodesia, Statute Law of Southern Rhodesia, from the Charter to 1910 (Salisbury, Government Printer, 1912), p. 270. 9 See M. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1996); Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2001). 10 Ranger, The African Voice, pp. 45–50; Muzondidya, 'The Coloured Community in Zimbabwe', pp. 74–5, 78, 90–91. 11 Southern Rhodesia, Statute Law of Southern Rhodesia, from Charter to 1910, p. 321 12 Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, pp. 27–8. 13 See Muzondidya, 'The Coloured Community in Zimbabwe', pp. 77–82. 14 C. Palley, The Constitutional History and Law of Southern Rhodesia, 1888–1965 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966), pp. 122, 144. 15 T. Yoshikuni, 'Black Migrants in a White City: A Social History of African Harare, 1890–1925' (PhD thesis, University of Zimbabwe, 1989), p. 39; J. Muzondidya, 'The State, Local Government, Local Capital and the Residential Segregation of Minorities: The Case of Coloureds and Indians in Salisbury, 1890– 1945' (MA dissertation, University of Zimbabwe, 1996), pp. 70–86. 16 See Palley, The Constitutional History of Rhodesia, pp. 641–2; L.W. Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia: White Power in an African State (Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 189; J. Muzondidya, Walking a Tightrope: Towards a Social History of the Coloured People of Zimbabwe (New Jersey, Africa World Press, 2005), pp. 22–4; 37–8; 208. 17 B. Rutherford, 'Belonging to the Farm(er): Farm Workers, Farmers and the Shifting Politics of Citizenship', in A. Hammar, B. Raftopoulos and S. Jensen (eds), Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business: Rethinking Land, State and Nation in the Context of Crisis (Harare, Weaver Press, 2003), p. 202. 18 L.M. Sachikonye, 'Land Reform for Poverty Reduction? Social Exclusion and Farm Workers in Zimbabwe' (unpublished Conference Paper, Manchester University, 2003), p. 4. 19 Clarke, Agricultural and Plantation Workers, p. 79. 20 Clarke, Agricultural and Plantation Workers, p. 79 21 Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia, p. 143. 22 See Rhodesia Herald, 7 January 1972 & Rhodesia Star, 11 November 1972. 23 See Rutherford, 'Belonging to the Farm(er)', p. 202; A. Blume, Land Tenure in Rural Zimbabwe: An Outline of the Problems (1996), p. 6, available at http://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/bib/00-0571.pdf, retrieved on 2 March 2006. 24 National Association for the Advancement of Mixed Race Coloureds (hereafter NAAC), Baseline Study on the Situation of Coloured People in Zimbabwe (August 2003), pp. 29–30, available at www.kubatana.net/ docs/resour/naacbls0308.doc, retrieved on 13 February 2004. 25 Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia, pp. 142–3. 26 See Rhodesia, 1969 Constitution; Rhodesia Herald, 13 November 1972. 27 See Zimbabwe National Archives (hereafter ZNA) S246/433/M4184, Director, Department of Lands, to Minister of Agriculture and Lands, 28 October 1924. 28 Palley, The Constitutional History of Rhodesia, pp. 640–2. 29 B.A. Kosmin, 'Ethnic and Commercial Relations in Southern Rhodesia: A Socio-historial Study of Asian, Hellenic and Jewish Populations, 1898–1943' (PhD. thesis, University of Rhodesia, 1974), p. 257. 30 See ZNA, LG93/44, City of Salisbury, Town Clerk, Council Meetings, 1 May 1940. 31 ZNA, S3279/2/413, Prime Minister, Correspondence, Minister of Local Government and Housing, Memorandum on Property Owners (Residential Protection) Bill, n.d., 1967. 32 NAAC, The Situation of Coloured People in Zimbabwe, p. 23. 33 L.M. Sachikonye, The Situation of Farm Workers after Land Reform in Zimbabwe. A Report Prepared for the Farm Community Trust of Zimbabwe (May 2003), available at www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/issues/livelihoods/landrights/downloads/zimfwsit.rtf, retrieved on 13 February 2004; Rutherford, 'Belonging to the Farm(er)'; D. Amonor-Wilks, Zimbabwe's Farm Workers and the New Constitution (2000), available at www.africaaction.org/rtable/ed0002.htm, retrieved on 15 February 2004. 34 Amonor-Wilks, Zimbabwe's Farm Workers; M. Larmer and S. Kibble, 'Zimbabwe's Farm Workers: From Direct Development to Politicised Advocacy' (draft paper for the Britain–Zimbabwe Society Research Day, St Anthony's College, 16 June 2001). 35 Amonor-Wilks, Zimbabwe's Farm Workers. 36 Sachikonye, Farm Workers, pp. 15; 22–4. 37 My discussions with a number of Zimbabweans on the above issue revealed that most people viewed Patel's Asian background as making her 'more Indian than Zimbabwean'. See also 'Gorgeous Una Shines to the Top', Sunday Mail Magazine, 31 August 1997. 38 'Controversy Hits Beauty Contest', The Sunday News, 16 August 1987. 39 NAAC, Coloured People in Zimbabwe, p. 23. 40 See 'Former Frolizi Fighters Denied Gratuity Payments', Zimbabwe Mirror, 19–25 January 1998. 41 See Herald, 24 February 1998. 44 'Some Mixed Race People Feel out of Present Socio-Economic Set-up', The Herald, 23 December 1996. 42 J.K. Seirlis, 'Urban Space and "Coloured" Identities in Harare, Zimbabwe' (PhD thesis, University of Oxford, 1999), pp. 305–65. 43 'Coloureds Want it Both Ways', Sunday Mail, 24 May 1981; 'Coloureds Seek Accommodation in Empowerment Programmes', Sunday Mail, 20 April 1997. 45 S. Moyo, B. Rutherford and D. Amanor-Wilks, 'Land Reform and Changing Social Relations for Farm Workers in Zimbabwe', Review of African Political Economy, 27, 84 (2000), p. 189. 46 Sachikonye, Farm Workers, p. 18. 47 Larmer and Kibble, 'Zimbabwe's Farm Workers'. 48 See Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, pp. 29–31; 236–41. 49 Under the Rhodesian numerical code system, every 'Native District' in the country was represented by a specific code and every adult native was issued a national identity card, with a code indicating one's district of origin. Coloureds, Indians and whites, regarded as being all urban groups, had the code '00' on their identification records. 50 B. Raftopoulos, 'Nation, Race, History in Zimbabwean Politics', in B. Raftopoulos and T. Savage (eds), Zimbabwe: Injustice and Political Reconciliation (Cape Town, Institute for Justice and Reconciliation, 2004), p. 160. 51 'Remain United: President', The Herald, 30 November 2004. 52 Gandhi and Jambaya (2002), pp. 4, 12, as cited in Raftopoulos, 'Nation, Race, History in Zimbabwean Politics', p. 162; B. Raftopoulos, 'The State in Crisis: Authoritarianism, Selective Citizenship and Distortions of Democracy in Zimbabwe', in Hammar et al. (eds), Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business, p. 230. 53 'Zanu-PF Accused of Tribalism', Daily News, 14 October 2002. 54 'Coloureds Treated with Utter Disdain at Government Offices', The Daily News, 12 July 2002. 55 'Urban Dwellers not Zimbabwean – MP', The Zimbabwe Independent, 1 July 2005. 56 See 'Coloureds Stuck in the Middle of Nowhere', Daily News, 28 September 2002; 'Coloureds Want a Piece of the Indigenisation Cake', Sunday Mail, 4 April 2001; 'Whites Were Not the Only Race Coming Under Attack', 3 December 2002, available at www.goffal.com/goffalnews/racism%20against%20Coloureds.htm, retrieved on 16 February 2003. 57 See Crisis in Zimbabwe Coalition, 'Not in Our Name: Women Farm Workers and Land Redistribution in Zimbabwe', Feminist Knowledge, n.d., available at http://www.gwsafrica.org/knowledge/zim2.html, retrieved on 28 June 2006; 'Opinion: Zimbabwe and its Xenophobic Neighbours', The Sunday Mirror, 10 July 2005. Also see online discussions on 'Mugabe Warns MDC Against Attempting to Overthrow Him', Zimdaily Weekend Edition, 10 October 2005, available at http://weekender.zimdaily.com/news/article.php/20051009153203360, retrieved on 28 June 2006. 58 The character of a 'village idiot' in almost every popular Zimbabwean drama is a Zimbabwean of Malawian, Zambian or Mozambican descent. Most of Zimbabwe's popular singers have at some point in their careers produced a song caricaturing these Zimbabwean population groups. 59 Communal lands, as Rutherford has rightly argued, have been associated with the nation – the backbone or defining character of the nation itself. See Rutherford, 'Belonging to the Farmer', p. 200. 60 See Sokwanele, '"Operation Murambatsvina": An Overview and Summary', 18 June 2005, available at www.sokwanele.com/articles/sokwanele/opmuramboverview18june 2005.html; retrieved on 29 June 2005; 'Massive Fuel Hike in Zimbabwe', Mail and Guardian Online (29 June 2005), available at www.mg.co.za/articlepage.aspx?area = /breakingnews/breakingnewsafrica/&articleid = 244061, retrieved on 29 June 2005. 61 See Human Rights Watch, '"Clear the Filth": Mass Evictions and Demolitions in Zimbabwe' (11 September 2005), pp. 31–2, available at http://hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/zimbabwe0905/zimbabwe0905.pdf, retrieved on 12 March 2006. 62 See Human Rights Forum, 'Human Rights and Zimbabwe's Presidential Election: March 2002' (May 2002), available at http://www.hrforumzim.com/special_hrru/ SpecialReport_4_2002%20Election/SR04.htm, retrieved on 11 December 2004. 63 See Government of Zimbabwe, Citizenship of Zimbabwe Amendment Act 2003 (Zimbabwe Government Gazette, 14 February 2003). 64 See 'The Ghost Voters, the Exiles, the Non-citizens: An Election of Exclusion', Cape Times, 31 March 2005. 65 See 'Bennett's Wife to Stand for Chimanimani', Zimbabwe Standard, 20 February 2005. 66 See 'Regularize Citizenship Status: RG's Office', The Herald, 18 January 2005; 'ZEC Outlines Category of Non-Eligible Voters', The Herald, Zimbabwe, 17 November 2005; Human Rights Forum, 'Human Rights and Zimbabwe's Presidential Election'. 67 Raftopoulos, 'Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business', pp. 25–6. 68 Raftopoulos, 'The State in Crisis'. 69 Larmer and Kibble, 'Zimbabwe's Farm Workers'. 70 Sachikonye, Farm Workers, p. 5. 71 Government of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Farm Workers Survey (Harare, Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare, 2001), p. 7; Sachikonye, Farm Workers, pp. 24–5. 72 See Larmer and Kibble, 'Zimbabwe's Farm Workers'. 73 'Coloureds Want a Piece of the Indigenisation Cake', Sunday Mail, 4 April 2001. 74 NAAC, Coloured People in Zimbabwe, p. 50 75 NAAC, Coloured People in Zimbabwe, p. 50 76 'Zim's Coloureds Want their Share', Dispatch Online, 8 September 2001, available at http://www.dispatch.co.za/2001/09/08/features/COLOURED.HTM, retrieved on 10 December 2002; 'Coloureds – Stuck in the Middle of Nowhere', Daily News, 28 September 2002. 77 'Coloureds Want a Piece of the Indigenisation Cake', Sunday Mail, 4 April 2001. 78 The leading local Zanu-PF politicians in this case included the then Governor of Matabeleland North Province, Obert Mpofu, who was accused by Mandaza of trying to exclude him from the property on 'tribal grounds'. See 'Fracas at Mandaza's Farms as War Vets Fight Eviction', The Standard, 13 July 2003; 'Mpofu/Mandaza in War of Words over Land', Zimbabwe Independent, 16 January 2004. 81 NAAC, Coloured People in Zimbabwe, Appendix 4, p. 89. 79 N. Marongwe, Conflicts over Land and Other Natural Resources in Zimbabwe (Harare, ZERO, 2002), p. 16. See also P.S. Nyambara, 'The Politics of Land Acquisition and Struggles Over Land in the "Communal" Areas of Zimbabwe: The Case of the Gokwe Region of Northwestern Zimbabwe in the 1980s and 1990s', Africa, 71, 2 (2001), pp. 54–108. 80 See 'Tribalism Alleged in Evictions', Daily News, 7 November 2002. 82 'Zimbabwe Threat to Asian Property', Business Day (South Africa), 25 April 2002. 83 'Zimbabwe Threat to Asian Property', Business Day (South Africa), 25 April 2002 84 'Whites Were Not the Only Race Coming Under Attack', 3 December 2002, available at www.goffal.com/goffalnews/racism%20against%20Coloureds.htm, retrieved on 16 February 2003. 85 'Whites Were Not the Only Race Coming Under Attack', 3 December 2002, available at www.goffal.com/goffalnews/racism%20against%20Coloureds.htm, retrieved on 16 February 2003 86 'Whites Were Not the Only Race Coming Under Attack', 3 December 2002, available at www.goffal.com/goffalnews/racism%20against%20Coloureds.htm, retrieved on 16 February 2003 87 Indian businessmen, such as the late Bulawayo business baron Manilal Naran, as well as Kantibhai Patel, the Zanu-PF Deputy Secretary for Finance who was recently appointed Senator, are examples of Indian leaders whose political and economic links with the nationalist leaders go back to the days of the struggle. See H.H. Patel, 'Asian Political Activity in Rhodesia from the Second World War to 1972', Rhodesian History, 9, 1978, pp. 70–80; Muzondidya, Walking a Tightrope, pp. 169–70, 223–5; 'Top Zimbabwean Businessman Naran Dies', Newzimbabwe.com, 7 August 2005, available at www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/inflation32.12948.html, retrieved on 7 August 2005; 'Come Out and Join Us, Coloureds, Asians Told', The Sunday News, 2 November 1986. 88 'War Vet Leader Ndlovu in Court Again', Daily News, 19 September 2002. 89 C. Huggins, 'Preventing Conflict through Improved Policies on Land Tenure, Natural Resource Rights, and Migration in the Great Lakes Region', Eco-Conflicts, 3, 1 (January 2004), p. 3. 90 See Ibid.; G. Nzongola-Ntalaja, 'Citizenship, Political Violence and Democratisation in Africa', Global Governance, 10 (2004), p. 405. 91 Nzongola-Ntalaja, 'Citizenship and Democratisation in Africa', p. 405; Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, p. 236–41. 92 Nzongola-Ntalaja, 'Citizenship and Democratisation in Africa', p. 405; Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, pp. 13–14. 93 See A. Malaquias, 'Ethnicity and Conflict in Angola: Prospects for Reconciliation', in J. Cilliers and C. Dietrich (eds), Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds (Pretoria, Institute of Security Studies, 2000), p. 107. 94 See Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, pp. 234–63; Nzongola-Ntalaja, 'Citizenship and Democratisation in Africa', pp. 404–6. 95 Nzongola-Ntalaja, 'Citizenship and Democratisation in Africa', pp. 403–4; 'Gbagbo's Bloody Blunder', Business in Africa Online, 13 January 2005, available at http://www.businessinafrica.net/newsfeatures/security/403569.htm, retrieved on 8 February 2006. 96 'Citizenship at Heart of Ivorian Conflict', Independent Online (South Africa), 14 July 2005, available at http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?setid = 1&clickid = 68&artid = qw112132728172R131, retrieved on 8 February 2006.