From soil to spikelet: the integrated impact of Aerobic and Water-Controlled Irrigation (AWCI) on rice growth under deficit irrigation

The intricate interplay among soil physicochemical properties, root physiological traits, and flowering gene expression fundamentally influences rice reproductive success and grain yield. This study elucidates the effects of the Aerobic and water-controlled irrigation (AWCI) method on rhizosphere soil parameters, root biochemical responses, pollen viability, and temporal expression of the circadian-related flowering gene OsFKF1 during the heading and flowering stage, illuminating their integrated impact on rice productivity. Application of the AWCI regime modulated soil pH and nitrogen dynamics at critical growth intervals, enhanced rhizosphere oxygen availability, and shifted redox potential, thereby contributing to nutrient bioavailability. Simultaneously, AWCI treatment influenced root antioxidant enzyme activities—including peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT)—as well as abscisic acid (ABA) and MDA concentrations, which positively correlated with elevated pollen viability and upregulated OsFKF1 expression. Multivariate analyses identified key determinants of yield enhancement, notably augmented root surface area during the jointing-booting phase, balanced soil nitrogen content, and finely regulated oxidative stress markers at the mid-tillering stage. Hierarchical clustering robustly designated the T3 treatment as a promising candidate AWCI protocol for maximizing reproductive performance and grain yield. Collectively, these findings underscore the pivotal nexus among irrigation management, soil biochemical milieu, root physiology, and floral gene regulation in modulating rice yield, offering a theoretical foundation for precision water management strategies tailored to sustainable productivity enhancement. Future research should extend to encompass additional flowering-related genes and a broader spectrum of rice cultivars to generalize these mechanistic insights under multiple abiotic stresses, including heat and drought combination. Aerobic and water-controlled irrigation (AWCI) method was associated with increased pollen activity and elevated expression of the circadian‑related gene OsFKF1 (one of several flowering‑associated genes) … and higher rice grain yield. Soil pH, total nitrogen content, root MDA content, and total root surface area were positively associated with pollen vitality, OsFKF1 expression at heading/flowering, and grain yield. 0-30 mm at the mid-tillering stage, 60%-80% at the late tillering stage, and 0-30 mm at the jointing-booting stage of water control mode was adopted as a theoretically satisfactory scheme to regulate the flowering period of rice and improve rice grain yield.