Efficacy, microbial disruption, and algal toxicity of commercial antifouling coatings: A multi-level assessment

≈ 0.46%), whereas FRC leachates showed minimal effects and were about 100 times less toxic. Microbial assays revealed that all coatings-including the biocide-free formulations-altered microbial physiology and behavior: leachates induced protein-damage responses, and both QS signaling and biofilm formation were species-specific, confirming that biocide-free does not mean biologically neutral. These results demonstrate that antifouling leachates act not only as toxicants but also as chemical cues shaping microbial communication and early colonization. Integrating microbial-level responses into antifouling evaluations is therefore essential. Overall, FRCs remain the most environmentally acceptable option, combining strong antifouling performance with minimal toxicity.