Protected areas and hunting system affect the survival and longevity of adult female Eurasian lynx in a source–sink population

Female survival is a critical parameter influencing population viability. In the Bohemian–Bavarian–Austrian region, we evaluated the effects of monitoring year, habitat quality, hunting system, and area protection on the apparent survival and minimum reached age of adult female Eurasian lynx. Area protection and hunting system significantly affected both survival and reached age, while monitoring year and habitat quality had no impact. Most females occurred in multiple protection and hunting system categories. National Parks were characterized by the highest female survival and reached age, Unprotected Landscapes by the lowest, while Protected Landscape Areas showed intermediate values. These differences likely reflect varying levels of law enforcement in protected and unprotected areas. Three distinct hunting system groups emerged: (a) No or National Park Hunting areas, with the highest female survival (~90%) and reached age, reflecting the population state in near‐natural conditions with minimal human‐related mortality; (b) Hunting grounds managed by state and private forest owners, with ~70% survival; and (c) Rented hunting grounds, with only ~50% female survival, likely related to higher rates of illegal killing. Our findings provide evidence that insufficient enforcement of legal protection poses a threat to adult female lynx and, by extension, the entire population.