Multi-omics reveals goat milk improves glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetes mellitus mice by gut–liver axis

Emerging evidence suggests that goat milk exerts beneficial effects on insulin levels, insulin sensitivity, and glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, the underlying mechanisms need further investigation. Here, the metabolic profiles of goat milk, goat milk powder, and cow milk were compared, revealing distinct compositional signatures. In a high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced T2DM mouse model, goat milk intervention significantly improved glucose homeostasis (fasting blood glucose decreased from 13.87 mmol/L to 8.08 mmol/L, P < 0.05), alleviated hepatic injury, and remodeled serum bile acid metabolism. Further investigation revealed that goat milk intervention altered the gut microbiota composition, characterized by an increased relative abundance of Akkermansia and Lachnoclostridium . Additionally, transcriptomic analysis suggested that goat milk intervention up-regulated Bcl-2 and PI3K and down-regulated G6pc in the hepatic PI3K/AKT pathway. Collectively, these findings suggest that goat milk has the potential to alleviate T2DM and may serve as a dietary intervention for T2DM patients.