Abstract This study investigates individual differences among Korean English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in language learning traits and intercultural competence in relation to their self-efficacy across four language skills, with a focus on identifying learner characteristics associated with balanced and imbalanced skill development. Data were collected using two structured questionnaires, which were individually administered to 37 college students who had achieved upper-intermediate or above level scores on standardized English proficiency tests and had recently returned from 12 to 14 months of studying abroad in English-speaking countries. Their functional preferences in language use, perceived sensitivities and capacities in language processing, efforts toward language development, and experiences with intercultural adaptation were assessed. The results indicated that aural-oral sensitivity, verbal memory, and engaged learning contributed the most to the students’ overall L2 efficacy, whereas differences in functional preferences and intercultural competence did not have significant effects. Four distinct learner profiles were identified with respect to balanced development across L2 skills: balanced (23 %), uneven by sensory mode (23 %), uneven by processing modality (49 %), and those reporting higher self-efficacy in speaking and reading than in listening and writing (6 %). A tendency to avoid interpersonal-practical language use and a lack of aural-oral sensitivity, accompanied by increased crosslinguistic-multimodal interference, appeared to cause the intensification of imbalanced skill development. The study provides a detailed account of the relationships among the observed variables and learner profiles associated with imbalanced development.
Kim et al. (2026) studied this question.