Integrating 3D apparel visualization into wildland firefighting protective apparel development: a sociotechnical case study

This case study explores how a U.S. wildland firefighting gear manufacturer (‘Company A’) evaluated three-dimensional (3D) apparel visualisation within its design and development workflow. Using an action research approach with six collaborative interviews across eleven months, the study documented baseline design, production, and business processes, and analyzed how 3D apparel visualisation software was assessed within a broader sociotechnical system. Guided by sociotechnical systems theory, the study shows that the value of 3D depends not only on technical functionality, but also on its alignment with organisational routines, firefighter-centred validation practices, supply-chain relationships, and regulation-bound product requirements. Findings indicate that 3D can accelerate early design decisions, enable multi-size evaluation, and clarify communication across the supply chain. Yet concerns about simulation fidelity, industry readiness, regulatory approval pathways, and the limited capacity of smaller firms constrained expectations for replacing physical prototypes. Overall, the case identifies a sector-specific sociotechnical adoption pathway for 3D in safety-critical apparel, in which the technology serves as a complementary tool for upstream visualisation, documentation, and coordination, while hybrid virtual and physical prototyping remains necessary for certification, risk management, and final fit verification.