Legacy brominated flame retardants in children's products in South Africa: Evidence of toxic recycling in a global circular economy

Recycled plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment likely contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD). Growing evidence of POPs-BFRs in children's products suggests the widespread use of recycled plastics in new items. However, there is a lack of research from South Africa on this topic. This study investigated the presence of legacy POPs-BFRs in children's products available in the South African market. A total of 138 samples, comprising both new and second-hand products, were purposively selected based on product materials and items previously associated with POPs-BFRs, as informed by the existing literature. Samples were analyzed using a handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer to determine bromine (Br) and antimony (Sb) concentrations. Br and Sb were used as proxy indicators of BFRs, including potential POPs-BFRs, consistent with established screening approaches. Br was detected in 38% of the samples at concentrations ranging from 10 to 7223 mg/kg. Sb was present in 90% of Br-positive samples, with levels between 37 and 416 mg/kg. High Br concentrations (>1000 mg/kg) were found in Rubik's Cubes, a toy mobile phone, and a puzzle mat. Other products, such as sunglasses, child car seats, car toys, motorcycle toys, basket and trolley toys, stethoscopes, and pistol toys, showed concentrations from 100 to 1000 mg/kg. The Br to Sb mass ratios matched those typical of POP-BDE formulations. This, along with low Br and Sb levels below those needed for flame retardancy, suggests contamination likely from recycling. Children's exposure to POPs-BFRs puts them at risk of chronic health effects. Addressing this emerging health threat requires multisectoral strategies, including stricter regulations, proactive screening of products before market release, and increased knowledge among industry stakeholders and consumers.