The Daisy model: A tool for simulating agricultural systems – Recent (2012–2025) developments, calibrations and validations

CONTEXT Process-based agroecological models are essential tools for understanding and managing agroecosystems. The agroecological model Daisy is widely used across climates and farming systems to simulate crop growth, water and heat dynamics, carbon turnover, nutrient cycling, and pollutant leaching. OBJECTIVE This paper documents Daisy's developments since 2012, evaluates its performance in peer-reviewed studies, and outlines priorities for future development. METHODS We describe the bioclimate, vegetation, and soil modules, including submodules for water flow, heat transport, organic matter dynamics, and solute transport, covering nitrogen dynamics and pesticide fate. We also review approximately 120 peer-reviewed studies published between 2012 and 2025 in which Daisy was applied. In addition, we introduce new tools for calibration, parallel execution, and output visualization, and outline future needs such as improved modelling of dissolved organic matter, a gas-transport module, and enhanced representation of soil structural dynamics and their effects on hydraulic properties. RESULTS AND CONCLUSSIONS Key new extensions include a model for preferential water flow and pesticide transport in vertically oriented biopores, simulations of natural toxin generation and wash-off, and an air–water interface and sorption model essential for PFAS fate assessment. Ongoing developments address surface plant residue dynamics, N₂O emissions, and dynamic soil structure changes. The literature review confirms Daisy's robust performance in simulating water balance, crop production, nitrogen cycling (including nitrate leaching), carbon sequestration, and the fate of natural and anthropogenic chemicals across diverse climates, soils, and management systems. SIGNIFICANCE Daisy remains a strong model for advancing process understanding and supporting scenario analysis to promote sustainable agricultural production.