Reciprocal relationships between mathematical wellbeing and school belongingness in the United States

Mathematical Wellbeing (MWB) is an emerging construct that captures students’ wellbeing experiences in mathematics. Although research on MWB is growing, a key assumption remains untested: that MWB is connected to students’ broader flourishing. This study addresses that gap by examining how elements of MWB related to U.S. eighth-graders’ sense of school belonging. Using data from the 2023 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), we analyzed self-report surveys from a nationally representative sample (n = 8,074). Hierarchical linear modelling and structural equation modelling were used to examine reciprocal relationships between MWB elements and student belongingness. Positive emotions/engagement and meaning in mathematics were significantly associated with school belongingness, controlling for sex and socioeconomic status. SEM results indicated that positive emotions/engagement influence feelings of belongingness through students’ sense of meaning. These findings offer preliminary evidence that MWB and school belongingness are interconnected, which motivates the need for future research and practice on MWB.