Experience-centred lens on automation surprise in non-critical automated driving: findings from an on-road WoZ study

Automation Surprise (AS) initially refers to moments when automated systems behave unexpectedly to the user, causing confusion and potentially leading to catastrophic consequences. While previous research primarily studied AS with safety-critical considerations, little is known about how users encounter and respond to such surprises during non-critical automated driving. To address this gap, we adopt an experience-centred lens to understand AS that builds on the pragmatist approach to experience in HCI and the sensemaking model of AS. Following design research traditions, we conducted a probe-based inquiry with a Wizard-of-Oz vehicle as an experience prototype on real roads, inviting participants to imagine being in an automated vehicle while engaging in non-driving-related activities. Through reflexive thematic analysis of think-aloud during the ride and post-hoc interviews, we identified AS as Direct and Indirect, and developed a conceptual categorisation along two dimensions: the nature of the surprise (positive to negative) and in-situ response level (high to low). Viewing AS through a pragmatist perspective on experience further demonstrates how AS is dynamic, situated, and relational. Our findings expand current understandings of AS beyond safety concerns to capture its experiential aspects, to inspire future experience-centred research and design in non-critical automated driving.