Investigating Whether Autonomous Shuttles Are Ready to Provide Regular Transit Service: A Review and Expert Interviews

Autonomous shuttles (ASs) are a distinct subset of autonomous vehicles (AVs), designed for shared, low-speed, and short-distance travel within defined service areas—unlike robo-taxis and private AVs, which focus on individual, on-demand mobility. ASs have the potential to transform urban mobility by enhancing access and connectivity. However, their effective deployment presents several challenges. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review of ASs pilot deployments, evaluating them across three key dimensions: technological and infrastructural requirements, regulatory barriers, and public acceptance. To supplement the review, eleven interviews were conducted with experts from academia, industry, and public and private agencies to gain practical insights into ASs implementation. These interviews explored benefits, challenges, use cases, and preparations needed by transportation departments. The findings suggest that although ASs can improve transportation efficiency, they are not yet ready for full-scale integration into transit systems. Safety remains a primary concern, especially in mixed-traffic environments. Other barriers include vague cybersecurity policies, high costs of high-resolution sensor data, and limited funding. The paper concludes with key recommendations for policymakers, including clearer regulations, standardized emergency protocols, and expanding the ASs ecosystem to support innovation, coordination, and financial sustainability.