The transfer effects of executive function training on prospective memory in children with learning difficulties: a longitudinal study

Extensive empirical evidence has established that children with learning difficulties (LDs) experience pronounced deficits in prospective memory (PM) - the cognitive ability to encode, maintain, and successfully execute delayed intentions. However, the specific mechanisms underlying these PM impairments remain underexplored, while extant intervention studies demonstrate marked heterogeneity in treatment outcomes. The present study sought to bridge these critical gaps by expanding the empirical foundation regarding PM dysfunction in children with LDs and exploring the improvement patterns of core executive function (EF) subcomponents (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility) during PM development within this population. We assessed LDs’ PM performance using a computerized dual-task paradigm and developed a comprehensive EF training protocol targeting these three subcomponents, which was delivered across twelve progressive sessions. Ninety-three children aged from 10 to 12 were randomly allocated to cognitive training (CT) group, behavioral training (BT) group, or control group, with PM performance assessed at pre-, post-training, and six-month follow-up. The results revealed prominent PM enhancements for two training groups, with CT group demonstrating superior effect compared to BT group both at post-training and six-month follow-up assessments. Furthermore, distinct temporal improvement patterns were identified across EF domains: working memory showed rapid gains at early training stage, while inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility exhibited progressive growth in middle to late stages. These findings make meaningful contributions to the field by offering preliminary indications for improving PM performance through EF training in children with LDs.