Early physical development and cognitive abilities: evidence from rural preschoolers in China

Physical development is a key foundation for early learning, yet the respective roles of physical fitness and outdoor activity remain unclear in under-resourced settings. Using data from 2,371 rural preschoolers in China, this study examined how these two dimensions relate to cognitive outcomes. Regression analyses showed that higher physical fitness was significantly associated with better performance in composite cognition (β = 0.017, p < 0.01), approaches to learning (β = 0.015, p < 0.01), and numeracy and concepts (β = 0.027, p < 0.01). In contrast, outdoor activity displayed narrower, domain-specific associations, with longer duration linked only to approaches to learning (β = 0.013, p < 0.01). Further analyses indicated that children’s health, social functioning, and socio-emotional skills partly explained these associations, suggesting behavioral and adaptive pathways rather than direct physiological mechanisms. The associations between physical fitness and cognitive outcomes were particularly pronounced among children from disadvantaged families, suggesting a potential compensatory effect of physical fitness in less advantaged developmental contexts.