Challenges and breakthroughs in muscular organ repair: biomimetic material design and advanced manufacturing strategies

Based on the profound consistencies in structural composition, physiological functions, and pathological responses, we defined the stomach, esophagus, intestines, bladder, urethra, uterus, and vagina as 'Muscular Organs' for the first time. Current repair strategies for muscular organ defects predominantly emphasize structural reconstruction while often neglecting functional restoration; thus, the introduction of this concept aims to explore novel biomaterial design strategies for their repair. This review systematically elucidates the anatomical homologies, shared pathological mechanisms, and regenerative bottlenecks of muscular organs. Regarding regenerative solutions, we highlight biomimetic design principles primarily driven by structural mimicry and supplemented by functional modifications, alongside the application of advanced manufacturing technologies in constructing these biomaterials. Furthermore, we prospectively discuss the breakthrough potential of cutting-edge technologies. Ultimately, we hope that this concept proposal will provide novel perspectives on material design for muscular organ repair and promote the broader application of biomimetic strategies in this field.