Exploring measurement invariance in ICT efficacy across countries in PISA 2022 using the alignment method

This study investigates the cross-national measurement invariance (MI) of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Efficacy Scale in PISA 2022 across 26 OECD countries. ICT efficacy, defined as students’ confidence in using digital tools for learning, is central to understanding educational outcomes in technology-rich environments, yet cross-country comparability cannot be assumed. Using the alignment method, the study identifies substantial non-invariance in both factor loadings and intercepts, indicating that direct comparisons of observed ICT efficacy scores may be misleading. More than 25% of model parameters exceeded recommended non-invariance thresholds in the sample of 176,621 students. Monte Carlo simulations confirmed the robustness of the alignment estimates, supporting valid comparisons of latent factor means. These findings highlight the importance of diagnostic evaluation of cross-national instruments and provide evidence-based guidance for policymakers and researchers seeking accurate and equitable assessments of students’ ICT-related competencies.