Terrorism in Two Cultures: Stress and Growth Following September 11 and the Madrid Train Bombings

In this study, we compared the prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and posttraumatic growth following the September 11, 2001, attacks in the United States and the March 11, 2004, Madrid, Spain train bombings. We also examined meaning in life as a correlate of posttrauma outcomes. A sample of midwestern college students (N = 188) reported less PTSD symptom severity following September 11 than did a sample of college students from southern Spain (N = 48) following the Madrid bombings. Americans reported more positive change than Spaniards following terrorism. Meaning in life was related to more positive outcomes in both countries. Grateful thanks to Margit Berman, Jason Steward, Heather Mortensen, and Laura Taketa. Notes Note. LRI = Life Regards Index; MLQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire Presence subscale; MLQ-S = Meaning in Life Questionnaire Search subscale. a Scores represent the sum of symptom severity ratings made on 0 to 3 scale. b 0 = not at all like my experience to 4 = very much like my experience. c 1 = much worse to 5 = much better. d 1 = disagree to 5 = agree. e 1 = absolutely untrue to 7 = absolutely true. ∗p < .05; ∗∗∗p < .001 (for t tests of differences between U.S. and Spain scores). Note. PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder; PBS = Perceived Benefits Scale; LCS = Life Changes Scale; LRI = Life Regards Index; MLQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire Presence subscale; MLQ-S = Meaning in Life Questionnaire Search subscale. a Male = − 1, female = 1, assessed only in U.S. sample. b Caucasian = − 1, other = 1, assessed only in the U.S. sample. c Yes = 1, no = 0. d 1 point each given for affirmative answer to know died, know hurt, and any friends/family in New York City/Madrid. †p < .10; ∗p < .05; ∗∗p < .01; ∗∗∗p < .001. Note. N = 188 (U.S.), N = 46 (Spain). PTSD = Posttraumatic Stress Disorder; PTG = Posttraumatic growth; DV = Dependent variable; PBS = Perceived Benefits Scale; LCS = Life Changes Scale; LRI = Life Regard Index; MLQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire Presence subscale. a − 1 = male, 1 = female. †p < .10; ∗p < .05; ∗∗p < .01; ∗∗∗p < .001. ∗Michael F. Steger is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at Colorado State University. Additional informationNotes on contributorsMichael F. Steger∗ Michael F. Steger is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at Colorado State University, Fort Collins. His research focuses on the role meaning plays in enhancing well-being and reducing psychological distress. Patricia A. Frazier Patricia A. Frazier is a Professor at the University of Minnesota. Her research focus has been to identify factors associated with adjustment to stressful or traumatic life events, with particular regard to the role of perceived control. Jose Luis Zacchanini Jose Luis Zacchanini is a Professor at the University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain.