How technology and work environment drive agricultural extension performance in Indonesia

Purpose This study examines the factors influencing smart technology adoption among agricultural extension workers in Indonesia and evaluates its effect on performance outcomes.Design/methodology/approach A quantitative survey was conducted with 286 extension workers in West Java. Data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to assess six direct relationships.Findings Smart technology traits and work environment were the strongest predictors of adoption, followed by competencies, communication channels, and agent characteristics. Technology adoption significantly improved extension worker performance, emphasizing that actual usage, not just access, drives service effectiveness.Practical implications Policymakers should invest in user-centered tool design, infrastructure, and digital training tailored to regional needs. Extension organizations are advised to adopt continuous learning strategies and performance-based incentives. Technology developers should co-design tools with users and localize features for greater adoption.Theoretical Implications This study extends TAM and DOI by integrating organizational and communication factors, demonstrating that technology adoption in agricultural extension is shaped not only by perceived traits but also by institutional and contextual conditions.Originality/value This study extends TAM and DOI by incorporating organizational and communication variables and provides empirical evidence from Indonesia, a context rarely explored in the digital extension literature.