Technical and infrastructure barriers to precision livestock farming in high-Andean dairy systems: a scoping review, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru

Introduction Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) integrates sensor networks, automation, and data analytics to support livestock management decisions. Despite its application in other contexts, PLF adoption in high-altitude Andean dairy systems in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru remains low. Methods A scoping review was conducted following PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Sixty-eight documents published 2020–2025 from Scopus, Web of Science, SciELO, and regional grey literature were analyzed using a mixed framework combining quantitative synthesis of infrastructure indicators and qualitative thematic analysis of barriers, assessed via an ordinal severity rubric (1–5) with inter-rater reliability assessed using weighted Cohen's kappa. Results A hierarchical taxonomy of nine barrier dimensions was developed: (i) connectivity, (ii) energy reliability, (iii) hardware robustness, (iv) logistics, (v) data governance, (vi) interoperability, (vii) technical support, (viii) financing constraints, and (ix) institutional framework. Country-level analyses revealed differentiated barrier configurations: logistical barriers dominate in Colombia, institutional barriers in Peru, and Ecuador exhibits a multidimensional high-severity profile. Discussion Technology transfer alone is insufficient. Staged, context-specific intervention strategies addressing physical infrastructure, institutional capacity, and human capabilities alongside technical deployment are required.