Adaptation in sport: development of frameworks and refinements

Athletes operate within a dynamic global sport environment that offers growth opportunities while simultaneously presenting unprecedented challenges. Adaptation – and the cultivation of an adaptive mindset – is critical for sustaining development, performance, and well-being. Yet the mechanisms underlying athletes’ adaptation remain partially understood. This review advances current adaptation conceptualizations by integrating theoretical perspectives and empirical findings in both momentary performance contexts and career transitions. We first outline the evolution of adaptation research in sport, emphasizing contributions from stress–coping theories, ecological dynamics, and expertise development. We then elaborate on the Meta-Model of Adaptation in Sport (MAS model), which conceptualizes adaptation as a probabilistic process driven by athletes’ evaluations of situational demands relative to their perceived ability to meet them. This framework differentiates between fast adaptation during performance events and prolonged adaptation during career change events. We extend the MAS model by proposing that adaptation is shaped by dual-processing mechanisms involving the interaction between automatic Type 1 and deliberate Type 2 cognitive processing. Expertise is reflected in (a) robust Type 1 processes, (b) the capacity to intentionally activate Type 2 processes when needed, and (c) the ability to efficiently return to automatic processing. Applied implications and future research directions are discussed.