Biofilm across domains: Implications for human health, industrial systems, and environmental sustainability

Biofilms are communities of microorganisms enclosed within a self-produced polymeric matrix. They significantly influence three major domains: healthcare, industry, and the environment. In healthcare, biofilms are difficult to eradicate due to their high resistance to antibiotics and ability to survive under extreme conditions, leading to persistent infections and contamination of medical devices. In industrial systems, biofilms contribute to corrosion, biofouling, and reduced efficiency in pharmaceutical, agricultural, textile, food, and beverage sectors. Despite these negative impacts, biofilms also offer beneficial applications, particularly in wastewater treatment, food processing, and pollutant removal. Therefore, microorganisms can act as both allies and adversaries. Emerging approaches such as quorum-sensing inhibitors, CRISPR technology, AI-based analysis, advanced imaging, and nanotechnology have significantly advanced biofilm research. However, the lack of standardized anti-biofilm evaluation methods and the gap between laboratory studies and real-world conditions remain major challenges. This review discusses the mechanisms of biofilm formation, their properties, beneficial and harmful effects, and innovative strategies to mitigate associated risks while harnessing their constructive applications.