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This study examines the tradeoff between learner autonomy and efficiency in optimizing online instructional design. While learner control is known to enhance personalization and engagement, it may also increase cognitive demands and learning time, potentially compromising efficiency. To investigate this issue, we conducted an experimental study comparing low and high levels of learner control across key dimensions: pace, place, content, and sequence. A total of 135 students participated, with one group following a fixed path (low learner control) and another navigating a flexible sequence (high learner control). Learning efficiency was assessed through engaged time, self-reported cognitive load, and performance outcomes. The results showed that the fixed path group achieved similar performance levels and experienced similar cognitive load levels to the flexible sequence group, while requiring significantly less time. These findings suggest that while learner control offers potential benefits, excessive autonomy may not lead to improved outcomes, moreover reduced learner control can lead to comparable performance and cognitive load outcomes with lower time investment. This supports the design of more efficient, less customizable online learning environments. This study contributes to the ongoing discussion about the design of adaptive learning systems by highlighting time as a critical component of instructional efficiency.
Gorbunova et al. (Sun,) studied this question.