Key points are not available for this paper at this time.
The pervasive role of the innate immune system is established by interferons. Emerging research shows an underappreciated ability of macrophages to regulate and propagate interferon responses in infectious and autoinflammatory disease states. In this review, we will discuss recent findings demonstrating the immunomodulating effects of macrophage interferon signaling. Apart from provoking cellular antimicrobial defenses, interferons augment the inflammatory activity of macrophages. These immunologic adaptations place the macrophage in the center of the interferon system and at the forefront of immunity. Consequently, macrophages are implicated in the pathogenesis of interferon-driven autoinflammatory disorders, such as SLE. In these disease states, the recognition of immunogenic ligands triggers macrophages to adopt an inflammatory phenotype through interferon signaling. This will amplify immune responses, eventually leading to autoinflammation. A better understanding of the macrophage’s role in interferon signaling will support the future elucidation of novel targets amendable for clinical treatment. The pervasive role of the innate immune system is established by interferons. Emerging research shows an underappreciated ability of macrophages to regulate and propagate interferon responses in infectious and autoinflammatory disease states. In this review, we will discuss recent findings demonstrating the immunomodulating effects of macrophage interferon signaling. Apart from provoking cellular antimicrobial defenses, interferons augment the inflammatory activity of macrophages. These immunologic adaptations place the macrophage in the center of the interferon system and at the forefront of immunity. Consequently, macrophages are implicated in the pathogenesis of interferon-driven autoinflammatory disorders, such as SLE. In these disease states, the recognition of immunogenic ligands triggers macrophages to adopt an inflammatory phenotype through interferon signaling. This will amplify immune responses, eventually leading to autoinflammation. A better understanding of the macrophage’s role in interferon signaling will support the future elucidation of novel targets amendable for clinical treatment. Interferons (IFNs) underlie the competence of the innate immune system to ward off pathogens. In viral infections, IFNs are secreted to induce an antiviral state in host cells, supporting our first line of defense against pathogens.1Durbin J.E. Fernandez-Sesma A. Lee C.K. Rao T.D. Frey A.B. Moran T.M. et al.Type I IFN modulates innate and specific antiviral immunity.J Immunol. 2000; 164: 4220-4228Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Moreover, IFNs recruit leukocytes to the site of infection and augment their activity.2Lee A.J. Ashkar A.A. The dual nature of type I and type II interferons.Front Immunol. 2018; 9: 2061Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar These measures ultimately aim to interfere with viral replication and dissemination, curtailing the infection. Perturbed IFN responses may therefore underlie severity and susceptibility to viral infections.3Posseme C. Llibre A. Charbit B. Bondet V. Rouilly V. Saint-André V. et al.Early IFNβ secretion determines variable downstream IL-12p70 responses upon TLR4 activation.Cell Rep. 2022; 39110989Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar Predictably, impaired IFN responses are a hallmark of severe COVID-19 manifestation.4Stertz S. Hale B.G. Interferon system deficiencies exacerbating severe pandemic virus infections.Trends Microbiol. 2021; 29: 973-982Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar,5Hadjadj J. Yatim N. Barnabei L. Corneau A. Boussier J. Smith N. et al.Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients.Science (1979). 2020; 369: 718-724Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar More than half a century of research since their discovery, the role of IFNs is now known to extend well beyond antiviral responses. Namely, IFNs orchestrate various distinct homeostatic processes and immune responses to maintain physiological integrity.6Place D.E. Malireddi R.K.S. Kim J. Vogel P. Yamamoto M. Kanneganti T.D. Osteoclast fusion and bone loss are restricted by interferon inducible guanylate binding proteins.Nat Commun. 2021; 12: 1-9Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar,7Katlinskaya Y.V. Katlinski K.V. Lasri A. Li N. Beiting D.P. Durham A.C. et al.Type I interferons control proliferation and function of the intestinal epithelium.Mol Cell Biol. 2016; 36: 1124-1135Crossref PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar Accordingly, disconcerted IFN responses have long been implicated to drive various autoinflammatory disorders, such as SLE and Aicardi-Goutières syndrome. In addition, IFNs commonly contribute to local or systemic inflammation as seen in rheumatoid arthritis and macrophage activation syndrome. Because perturbed IFN signaling appears as a common denominator in these conditions, they are now widely recognized as so-called interferonopathies. The pervasive role of IFNs necessitates investigative efforts into all facets of the IFN system to infer clinically relevant targets to reduce the burden of inflammatory disease. The IFN system is directed toward interfering with microbial dissemination, principally by enhancing interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression. On infection, nearly any host cell will produce IFNs as an intrinsic response against microbials, but also to protect neighboring cells and activate leukocytes. Purposely, some leukocytes are competent producers of IFNs themselves and highly responsive to the regulatory effects of IFNs, forming a feed-forward loop. The capacity of leukocytes to produce IFNs is dependent on cell lineage and cellular microenvironment, like the presence of pathogens and cytokines. Classically, there are lineages of cells specialized in the secretion of specific types of IFNs. For instance, plasmacytoid dendritic cells are accepted to be the predominant producers of type I and type III IFNs, whereas T cells are the foremost type II IFN-secreting leukocytes.8Fitzgerald-Bocarsly P. Dai J. Singh S. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells and type I IFN: 50 years of convergent history.Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2008; 19: 3Crossref PubMed Scopus (261) Google Scholar, 9Psarras A. Alase A. Antanaviciute A. Carr I.M. Md Yusof M.Y. Wittmann M. et al.Functionally impaired plasmacytoid dendritic cells and non-haematopoietic sources of type I interferon characterize Commun. 2020; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, Dai J. J. M. et al.Type III IFNs are by and plasmacytoid dendritic Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, of innate and immune Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar various leukocytes have been S. A. L. J. S. of type I interferons in infectious plasmacytoid dendritic cells in the Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, L. et of by macrophages at the with PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, C. S. B. et of innate PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, A. M. S. et macrophages are producers of interferons and macrophages are 2020; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the of the IFN The dual nature of and from their role in and C. M. A.C. of macrophages in understanding on Immunol. 2021; 12: Scholar macrophages are of by on the role of and in innate immune responses. recognition a of macrophages to such as The to for IFN responses are such as and such as gene and gene their of and to viral and macrophages to an of in response to their the of an IFN Apart from IFNs, macrophages are responsive to IFNs, in the center of the IFN J.E. Fernandez-Sesma A. Lee C.K. Rao T.D. Frey A.B. Moran T.M. et al.Type I IFN modulates innate and specific antiviral immunity.J Immunol. 2000; 164: 4220-4228Crossref PubMed Google S. A. L. J. S. of type I interferons in infectious plasmacytoid dendritic cells in the Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar this role also macrophages in interferons in 2020; Scopus Google A. Li M. of systemic a cellular Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar for the of processes the IFN on regulatory This will the understanding of regulatory IFN responses in macrophages. of IFNs is their ability to cellular to immunologic These effects first than 50 years and are to be a function of PubMed Google Scholar the IFN system is established to of type and III IFNs. are of type I and and III IFNs to and a type II IFN The of these is but to and of and Immunol. 2021; Scopus Google M. J. J. of type I interferons Biol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the types of IFNs S. M. et of (1979). PubMed Google Scholar, A. P. et of by Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, M. M. S. The of interferon at A. PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar Accordingly, of IFNs a distinct signaling is their regulatory immunomodulating effects or the binding of type I IFNs to and triggers and to and of and IFN regulatory to gene type II IFN and leading to and and of The activation will to the to whereas response the of III IFNs a of and their downstream signaling with type I IFNs are downstream of with antimicrobial to protect the host from of the are with and are also a in the of various are the control of in all of the viral from to they all PubMed Scopus Google Scholar are in viral infections, but IFNs in is is known the of is for to pathogens in a to viral infections, by of replication and L. V. I interferon against disease by the PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, M.Y. Smith M. et interferon gene in Rep. 9: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, N. A.A. J. S. et of interferon responses by 2022; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar, S. S. S. M. J. et is a the of Commun. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar IFNs contribute to by the secretion of and A.J. B. et type I interferon signaling to activate cells a viral PubMed Scopus Google A. an leading to of and type I Immunol. 2008; 9: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar IFNs as of inflammatory responses, the inflammatory response of C. Llibre A. Charbit B. Bondet V. Rouilly V. Saint-André V. et al.Early IFNβ secretion determines variable downstream IL-12p70 responses upon TLR4 activation.Cell Rep. 2022; 39110989Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar is a inflammatory by the J. A. L. A. N. et al.Type I IFN in an and to for of and in Immunol. PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar secretion is by an and type I IFN loop. On cell macrophages will an inflammatory the secretion of IFNs. The type I IFNs the macrophage’s ability to produce B. M. et of in macrophages by and type I interferons.Front Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google M. et and type in PubMed Scopus Google Scholar These findings type I IFNs to a regulatory to macrophages to inflammation and the ability of type II IFN to induce antiviral responses, is a of macrophages by enhancing the of macrophage in their or the of type II IFN is the of through macrophages to recruit the of B. of and in immune 2020; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar type II IFN the of by immunologic of the such as and secretion of inflammatory and M. in infectious 2018; 9: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar The of type II IFN to the macrophage’s phenotype is by ability to to inflammatory in of M. S. et into highly macrophages a phenotype relevant to Immunol. 2021; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the type I and II IFN are type I and II IFN signaling have been to These effects are by the ability of type I IFNs to also and type II IFN to C. I interferon activation of and signaling Immunol. 2020; Scopus Google Scholar, M. M. C. et of interferon Biol. 2020; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, A. C. M. et from to gene Commun. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar IFNs to into the of types of IFNs, in the cellular response to types of IFNs. These effects are in macrophages or the of J. et inflammatory responses to type I interferon in or Immunol. 2022; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar the is macrophages a gene commonly with type II IFN to type III IFNs, first in they the recent to the IFN V. A. M. et antiviral against virus infection host Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google A. M. et antiviral through a distinct II Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar efforts are directed toward understanding the of type III IFNs a IFN system type I and type II IFNs. a local and role of type III IFNs, whereas type I IFNs induce a systemic immune V. A. M. et antiviral against virus infection host Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google M. V. et of type III in 12: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, A. the the of type III Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, L. P. innate and immune Immunol. 19: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, and distinct of type I and type III Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, Li et responses of innate by of a in and PubMed Scopus Google Scholar with the of IFN these findings may for the of the immune system to have various types and of IFNs at M. J. J. of type I interferons Biol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar to IFN is the of IFNs. of type I the of common have a on IFN L. et and macrophage in interferon 2022; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar This is well by IFN signaling homeostatic conditions, is by type I IFN of the of IFNs, in of is to immune D.E. type I interferon modulates homeostatic through 36: Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar For instance, macrophages by against viral et the activation of innate antiviral Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, of viral through interferon Microbiol. 2022; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar This is by the susceptibility to et the activation of innate antiviral Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, of viral through interferon Microbiol. 2022; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar, A.C. V. et activation inflammatory response and ability to control infection in Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, The intestinal immune responses and Immunol. 9: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar in such as the and bone in IFN signaling in the of A. and type I IFN responses in inflammatory Rep. 2018; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar IFN signaling in and this to be to their antiviral in immunologic responses, cells The IFN is to and IFNs as to the of in D.E. Malireddi R.K.S. Kim J. Vogel P. Yamamoto M. Kanneganti T.D. Osteoclast fusion and bone loss are restricted by interferon inducible guanylate binding proteins.Nat Commun. 2021; 12: 1-9Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar This homeostatic role of IFN is by type I or type II IFNs, they bone N. M. Li et a role in bone in and in PubMed Scopus (0) Google S. C. Li A. L. et novel role for interferon regulatory in of bone Cell PubMed Scopus Google Scholar bone is with inflammatory such as SLE and rheumatoid disease in 2018; PubMed Scopus (26) Google N. C. S. in rheumatoid 2020; IFN signaling is therefore to this role of macrophages. More than years cells first to the ability to produce IFNs, in response to viral A. J. the Interferon Scopus (0) Google Scholar a of and producers of IFNs have been V. A. M. et antiviral against virus infection host Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google A. M. et antiviral through a distinct II Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the macrophage’s ability to produce IFNs is macrophages produce IFNs in inflammatory conditions, from viral and to ligands Classically, viral are the ligands macrophages to produce IFNs. to this recognition macrophages a of and M. C. of viral by innate 2021; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar are by as or from to by III and type I interferons through the Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar may also will the antiviral signaling to recruit as a in the IFN for the and of and in the to as a of type I IFNs. to the through of IFN leading to and The these is their is responsive to as to the binding of by A. J. the and Immunol. Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar These are the first signaling to in on viral such as the J. J. S. A. L. et al.Early innate recognition of virus in macrophages is the and PubMed Scopus Google Scholar macrophages their to the recognition of pathogens. These and with to activate to for IFNs through and A. M. C. J. et in and Rep. PubMed Google Scholar, B. M. J.E. et is an of and is by cell Immunol. PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar, and to from Cell Microbiol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, S. et of a activation or PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar Apart from IFNs, of these signaling off to inflammatory responses for to drive the inflammatory phenotype in M. C. of viral by innate 2021; PubMed Scopus Google M. B. C. C. M. et by and Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, and in Immunol. 2018; 9: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, The role of response in the Biol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar In recent the of and responsive to viral and been implicated in type I IFN J. et is for signaling to type I IFN Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, S. for type I interferon downstream of 2020; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar, L. L. M. et the immune response through and to L. 2020; Scopus Google Scholar, A. C. M. The of a innate through and Immunol. PubMed Google Scholar, et al.Type I interferon macrophage Rep. 2021; Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (26) Google Scholar This is of the of IFN responses of viral this the ability to type II IFN is to be restricted to T cells and an of macrophages to produce IFNs in response to and J. A. L. et of in the of Microbiol. 2018; 9: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, P. P. S. P. S. et and of a with and PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, et produce upon with PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, P. M. J. et augment by cells through of Immunol. PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar the ability of macrophages to produce type II IFN been in the but is to extend to and Because the are a site for they immune activity and macrophage by S. M. C. I interferons as of Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar macrophage activity an infection, is with the ability of type I IFNs to S. S. S. M. J. et is a the of Commun. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar In macrophages may an with type II IFN B. of and in immune 2020; PubMed Scopus Google J. C. C. S. S. et and distinct of macrophages the Commun. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar to T cells and cells, macrophages responsive to and leading to type II IFN L. et of by macrophages at the with PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the presence of and in the macrophage phenotype be through the secretion of type II IFN by The in Cell Biol. PubMed Scopus Google M. et with in severe PubMed Scopus Google Scholar type III IFNs are the IFNs by macrophages J. A. L. et signaling in macrophages is for the antiviral response to Immunol. 2021; 12: Scopus Google Scholar and type II macrophages produce type I and III IFNs whereas macrophages A. M. S. et macrophages are producers of interferons and macrophages are 2020; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the macrophages to the viral infection. These findings with the impaired ability of with to viral infections, macrophages type III IFN M. V. et of type III in 12: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar also in macrophage the ability to produce IFNs is all macrophage macrophages produce IFNs in response to a of be viral or their macrophages are the cells in to T cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells be IFN producers the macrophages in our first line of defense may have to on their IFN L. et of by macrophages at the with PubMed Scopus Google Scholar with the ability of macrophages to and immunogenic this macrophages producers of of macrophages to a of ligands as for the recognition of infections, TLR4 may to an IFN is in this for a and In all of on to and a for recognition to in the inflammatory response of macrophages. in of cells macrophages to be to P. to of cell 12: PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar These cells are to the of these immunogenic may activate The to or and by and in is the in Immunol. 2021; 12: Scopus Google in inflammatory 2018; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar these inflammatory conditions, are in place to are of macrophages this on the of some of the and M. from in Immunol. 2016; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar For macrophages toward through are in in the to in the the macrophage’s ability to and of Cell Biol. Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar and are responsive to and in the a IFN response on their The response of cells to Growth Factor Rev. PubMed Scopus Google S. M. of of and the of Cell PubMed Scopus Google Scholar are in place to the of these such as binding of viral with V. J. Kim S. A. et is the for PubMed Scopus Google Scholar regulate the activity of the IFN macrophages on to the and of these and the to the activation of such as macrophages a of to activation of IFN S. M. J. et macrophage Immunol. PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar macrophages the of On will be the activation of IFN M. et by of as PubMed Scopus Google Scholar This is by on a of IFN M. M. et by innate and antiviral immune in Rep. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar to with IFN in common the of in the IFN B. et of common inflammatory 2022; PubMed Scopus (0) Google M. et in Aicardi-Goutières with a type I interferon PubMed Scopus Google Scholar also activation of a of cell and B. Lee Malireddi R.K.S. et immune response and to Rep. 2021; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar research effects in S. J. S. et by 2022; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, L. S. J. M. et type I interferon by 2022; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, M. et 2022; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar Apart from shows in viral M. S. M. et infection by innate immune 2018; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, M. by the host system the of the PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, J. J. M. et of of viral on replication and of A. 2022; Scopus Google Scholar to This of antiviral pathogens on for their into the host C. M. M. S. et of infection of macrophages by the PubMed Scopus Google Scholar with and to their the inflammatory of macrophages. This is in macrophages IFN in of any A. M. S. Kim B. type I Immunol. 2018; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar In as a to the IFN system by the of immunogenic Apart from IFN responses, there are enhancing IFN responses. Because the IFN system is highly responsive to viral infections, to the of innate immune responses are in These are of into the and a of the of these are or some are to regulate immune M. B. B. et of in response to virus 2020; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, and of an 2020; 12: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, M. J. et of and 12: PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar In type II and are C. of innate through of 2016; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar The of into immunomodulating of the macrophages to their antiviral for future immunologic responses by More macrophages to the of on with viral B. L. et long innate immune responses Scopus Google Scholar the of the to reduce antiviral activity of macrophages and in IFN responses by the of viral and to S. S. C. et an antiviral innate immune function the Scopus Google Scholar These findings support an underappreciated regulatory role of in immunity. activation of macrophages local and systemic through the presence of cells distinct the inflammatory of macrophages the presence of regulatory to their inflammatory to commonly with an inflammatory macrophage In the of macrophages is they to be in response to their In with their ability to regulate the of in response to a of and distinct N. S. of with immune activation of macrophages and type I interferon PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar the of IFN signaling is in macrophages with by their for to physiological On recognition of a is for macrophages to macrophage activity and N. S. of with immune activation of macrophages and type I interferon PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar In macrophages are to in in disease. macrophages have an supporting their and A. the the and the Immunol. 2021; 12: Scopus Google Scholar the and of the or and the of These processes by the or The of the of the for and S. J. of from to host Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar binding to augment This is the of by in by A. to the of innate Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar beyond regulatory of the S. J. et activation of inflammatory by and Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar are regulatory to toward binding to an and the of are the of cell the of the cell Consequently, macrophages of than cells, T cells, and type I IFN M. L. A. et novel distinct of macrophage PubMed Scopus Google Scholar the to be whereas for with and innate immune S. Interferon binding of is cell type specific and is by homeostatic 2021; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar In addition, macrophages be through the of their by On to type I or II IFNs, macrophages and their to an IFN J. of the of interferon-stimulated in cell lineages by Microbiol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, S. of macrophage PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, M. A.B. gene in and Immunol. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, S. J. L. A. et the and of macrophage 2021; Scholar I IFNs support the inflammatory phenotype of the macrophage by the of by at of inflammatory Kim et al.Type I IFNs and the macrophage to inflammatory Immunol. PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar type II IFN macrophages a of to be in of with some of these in long of C. of innate through of 2016; PubMed Scopus Google V. S. A. S. et by in Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google C.K. control of activation and in Immunol. PubMed Google Scholar These effects are through the efforts of and with and supporting the of J. et gene in macrophages by by the Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google C. I interferon of macrophages innate and in viral PubMed Scopus Google Scholar type II IFN support the of inflammatory but also J. A. L. et and with by and Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar type II IFN with responses, such as J. et gene in macrophages by by the Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google M. S. et a of and to macrophage Commun. PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar The effects of IFN may extend beyond inflammatory responses and may have a regulatory role in innate like immunity. The ability to or to to be restricted to the of immunity. In recent the innate adaptations to have been This is commonly to as and is a hallmark of innate immune J. M. et and role in and Immunol. 2020; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar In line with toward a role in inflammatory IFN et in type I interferons to a Immunol. 2022; Scopus (0) Google Scholar, M. S. M. et of macrophages T cell and is to 2018; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, S. P. A. M. et of macrophages and type interferon Immunol. 2022; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar, A. N. et immune of macrophages in binding and against 2018; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar to IFN by the of II on to a
Siebeler et al. (Sat,) studied this question.