Biological activities and nano-bioactive products of Illicium spp.: From phytochemistry to industrial translation

The genus Illicium (Schisandraceae), particularly I. verum Hook. f. (star anise), represents an economically significant source of bioactive phytochemicals with demonstrated pharmacological potential. The essential oil, dominated by trans -anethole (70–94%), together with flavonoids, phenolic acids, and shikimic acid, the key industrial precursor for the antiviral drug oseltamivir, underpins a broad spectrum of biological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, and antifungal effects. However, translation into industrially viable products is constrained by inherent physicochemical limitations, including high volatility, poor water solubility, and low oral bioavailability. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of research conducted over the past 15 years on the utilisation of Illicium spp. in nanotechnology-driven applications. The phytochemical basis for biological activity is systematically reviewed, followed by evaluation of green biosynthesis of metallic nanoparticles (Ag, Au, ZnO, CuO, Fe₃O₄, NiFe₂O₄, Y₂O₃) mediated by I. verum extracts, and nanoencapsulation strategies, including chitosan nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and nanoemulgels - that have enhanced the efficacy, stability, and controlled release of Illicium bioactives. Comparative analysis of nano-enabled versus conventional formulations reveals consistent improvements in antimicrobial potency, dose-sparing effects, extended shelf life in food systems, and enhanced bioavailability for pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical applications. The economic significance and industrial potential are critically evaluated, including the regulatory landscape, supply chain vulnerabilities of the shikimic acid market, and translational barriers such as insufficient nanotoxicological data, lack of standardised green synthesis protocols, and the absence of commercially available nanoencapsulated essential oil products. Future research priorities encompass chronic in vivo safety evaluation, stimuli-responsive nanocarrier development, omics-guided formulation design, and nano-specific regulatory frameworks. This review positions I. verum as a uniquely versatile platform at the intersection of phytochemistry, green nanotechnology, and industrial translation.