Heat stress and bleaching in corals: a bioenergetic model

Abstract The coral-dinoflagellate endosymbiosis is based on nutrient exchanges that impact holobiont energetics. Of particular concern is the breakdown or dysbiosis of this partnership that is seen in response to elevated temperatures, where loss of symbionts through coral bleaching can lead to starvation and mortality. Here we extend a dynamic bioenergetic model of coral symbioses to explore the mechanisms by which temperature impacts various processes in the symbiosis and to enable simulational analysis of thermal bleaching. Our model tests the effects of two distinct mechanisms for how increased temperature impacts the symbiosis: 1) accelerated metabolic rates due to thermodynamics and 2) damage to the photosynthetic machinery of the symbiont caused by heat stress. Model simulations show that the model can capture key biological responses to different levels of increased temperatures. Moderately increased temperatures increase metabolic rates and slightly decrease photosynthesis. The slightly decreased photosynthesis rates cause the host to receive less carbon and share more nitrogen with the symbiont. This results in temporarily increased symbiont growth and a higher symbiont/host ratio. In contrast, higher temperatures cause a breakdown of the symbiosis due to escalating feedback that involves further reduction in photosynthesis and insufficient energy supply for CO₂ CO 2 concentration by the host. This leads to the accumulation of excess light energy and the generation of reactive oxygen species, eventually triggering symbiont expulsion and coral bleaching. Importantly, bleaching does not result from accelerated metabolic rates alone; it only occurs as a result of the photodamage mechanism due to its effect on nutrient cycling. Both higher light intensities and higher levels of DIN render corals more susceptible to heat stress. Conversely, heterotrophic feeding can increase the maximal temperature that can be tolerated by the coral. Collectively these results show that a bioenergetics model can capture many observed patterns of heat stress in corals, such as higher metabolic rates and higher symbiont/host ratios at moderately increased temperatures and symbiont expulsion at strongly increased temperatures.