Globalisation, tourism and environmental Kuznets curve

This paper investigates the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) in developed and developing countries, examining the nonlinear impact of tourism on carbon emissions and ecological footprint from 1990 to 2019. Using a panel fixed effects model, results show a tourism-extended EKC for developed countries but a U-shaped relationship for developing countries. The study uniquely distinguishes between trade and financial globalization, de jure and de facto globalization, to assess economic globalization’s potential to moderate tourism’s environmental impact. Developed countries experience detrimental effects from trade de jure globalization, while developing countries benefit from expanding trade de facto and financial de jure globalization. These findings inform eco-friendly tourism initiatives and globalization strategies.