Electronic structure modulation of Ru sites toward efficient water splitting

Ruthenium (Ru)-based catalysts stand out as highly promising for commercial water electrolysis owing to their exceptional catalytic activity. However, strong proton adsorption and poor stability under anodic conditions severely hinder their development. Optimizing the electronic structure of Ru sites has proven to be an effective strategy for enhancing activity and stability. Herein, based on our previous research results, we first discuss the fundamental principles of single and dual electronic modulation for Ru sites. Subsequently, electronic structure modulation approaches including anion modulation, heteroelemental modulation, heterostructure modulation, support modulation, and other modulations are analyzed. In addition, synthetic strategies are summarized to accelerate the fabrication of highly efficient catalytic systems. Finally, the trend and prospects for the future development of Ru-based catalysts are proposed. We anticipate that this review will provide essential theoretical and experimental guidance for the rational design and construction of Ru-based catalysts, ultimately contributing to the development of sustainable and cost-efficient hydrogen production technologies.