Waste-derived carbon materials for high-efficiency lithium-ion batteries: A review

Waste derived carbon materials have advanced as sustainable alternatives to graphite for lithium ion battery anodes, yet existing studies remain fragmented because biomass and plastic wastes are often examined separately. This review integrates these research streams and establishes a unified framework linking feedstock composition, co-carbonization behaviour, activation pathways, heteroatom doping, and microstructural evolution to electrochemical performance. The analysis demonstrates that blended biomass-plastic feedstocks generate synergistic effects that shape yield, porosity, interlayer spacing, defect density, and surface chemistry. These structural features govern dual lithium storage mechanisms involving pseudocapacitive adsorption at defect sites and intercalation within turbostratic microdomains. Reported capacities frequently exceed 500 mAh g -1 with superior rate performance compared to graphite. The review shows that excessive surface area and uncontrolled activation reduce initial coulombic efficiency through extensive solid electrolyte interphase formation, whereas moderated activation and controlled defect engineering improve cyclability. The study also shows the performance gains achieved by forming hybrids with metal oxides, silicon, and MXenes, which enhance conductivity, buffer volume change, and accelerate ion transport, delivering capacities between 700 and 1200 mAh g -1 . Key barriers include low initial coulombic efficiency, variable feedstock quality, and the limited scalability of chemical activation. The review identifies targeted pre-lithiation, multi heteroatom co doping, and data driven synthesis optimisation as essential strategies for advancing waste derived carbons toward commercial anode applications.