Human–Tiger Conflict in and Around Chitwan–Parsa National Parks: Status, Trends, Contributing Factors, Mitigation Strategies, and Community Perceptions

Human casualties are among the most severe consequences of human-tiger conflict (HTC), and recent evidence from Nepal indicates an increasing trend in tiger-related incidents. This decade-long study (2014/15-2023/24 A.D.) examined the status, trends, associated factors, conflict patterns, and mitigation preferences related to HTC in and around Chitwan and Parsa National Parks, including surrounding forests of Parsa, Bara, Makawanpur, Chitwan, and Nawalpur districts. Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews with all reported victims or household representatives. Analyses included descriptive statistics, Chi-squared tests, correlation analysis, Friedman ANOVA, and hotspot mapping using MS Excel, SPSS, ArcGIS, and Python. A total of 80 tiger attacks were recorded, with fatalities and injuries occurring in nearly equal proportions. Most cases occurred in the Chitwan National Park buffer zone, and males comprised more than three-fourths of victims, largely reflecting their involvement in high-risk forest-related activities. Recorded casualties increased during the study period and showed a positive association with tiger population estimates; however, this relationship should be interpreted as associative rather than causal because multiple ecological and human-use factors may also contribute. Hotspot analysis identified Budhirapti BZUC, Madi Valley, and adjoining areas as major conflict zones. Incidents were more frequent during the monsoon and spring seasons, and solitary individuals were more vulnerable than those in groups. Most attacks involved older, injured, or sub-adult tigers. Awareness and training were ranked as the most preferred mitigation measures, and local communities generally maintained positive attitudes toward tiger conservation despite increasing conflict risks. The findings highlight the need for targeted, context-specific mitigation strategies, including awareness and training, strengthened physical barriers, management of problem tigers, and further testing of rear-face masks to support safer human-tiger coexistence.