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Populations of the common dog-whelk Nucella lapillus (L.) are declining or have already disappeared at many sites on rocky shores around the United Kingdom (Bryan et al. 1986). There is conclusive evidence that this is caused mainly by tributyltin (TBT) compounds leached from ships' antifouling paints (Bryan et al. 1987). These compounds impose male sexual characters (or imposex) on female N. lapillus . Other stenoglossan gastropods including Nassarius obsoletus Say (Smith, 1981 a ) and Ocenebra erinacea (L.) (Féral & Gall, 1982) are similarly affected by TBT. The intensity of expression of imposex in N. lapillus can generally be related to the sea water concentration of TBT. The appearance of a small penis and the partial development of a vas deferens first occurs at TBT concentrations below 0.5 ng/1 (as tin), although reproduction appears to be unaffected at this level. At 1–2 ng Sn/1 penis size is markedly increased and in some females proliferation of vas deferens tissue overgrows the genital papilla, thus sterilizing the animal. At slightly higher concentrations virtually all females become sterilized and at around 10 ng Sn/1 oogenesis is suppressed and spermatogenesis initiated (Gibbs, Pascoe & Burt, 1988). Since development is direct and there is no planktonic stage, N. lapillus has a very limited capacity for dispersion: thus the sterilization of females heralds the almost certain decline of so affected populations (Gibbs & Bryan, 1986).
Bryan et al. (Tue,) studied this question.