Modelling sequential readiness and learner profiles for extended reality-based learning in open and distance education

Purpose This paper reports on a study that was intended to examine how students’ readiness shapes their perceptions of extended reality (XR)-based learning in open and distance learning (ODL) whilst also identifying latent learner profiles and exploring students’ expectations regarding XR- and AI-supported learning. Design/methodology/approach A mixed-method sequential explanatory design was employed. Quantitative data were collected from 122 students enrolled in an Earth and Space Science course at Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia, who had prior exposure to XR-supported learning activities. The relationships amongst Technology Readiness, Cognitive Readiness, Affective Readiness and Perceptions of XR-Based Learning were analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling whilst learner heterogeneity was examined using finite mixture partial least squares (FIMIX-PLS). Qualitative responses were analysed through thematic analysis. Findings The results revealed a sequential readiness mechanism: Technology Readiness significantly predicted Cognitive Readiness, Cognitive Readiness significantly predicted Affective Readiness and Affective Readiness emerged as the strongest direct predictor of Perceptions of XR-Based Learning. FIMIX-PLS identified two latent learner segments with different readiness configurations. The qualitative analysis generated three themes: the visualisation of abstract concepts and improved understanding, interactivity and learning engagement and accessibility and ease of use. Research limitations/implications The study was conducted in a single-course context using purposive sampling, which may limit the broader generalisation of the findings. Practical implications XR implementation in ODL should support not only technological access but also students’ cognitive and affective preparedness. Social implications The findings highlight the importance of accessible and inclusive XR-supported learning in widening meaningful participation in ODL, particularly for learners who study independently and rely heavily on digital environments. Originality/value The study offers a sequential readiness model for XR-based learning in ODL and highlights learner heterogeneity in immersive learning contexts.