Integrating 3D Modeling and Printing with Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Instructional Design in Engineering Drawing Through a Vocational Teacher Development Program

Vocational teachers are increasingly expected to integrate emerging technologies into teaching. This study investigated a Vocational Teacher Development Program (VTDP) for integrating 3D modeling and printing (3DMP) and artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted instructional design in engineering drawing. It aimed to examine differences in perceived technical knowledge by teacher status and gender and to explore vocational teachers’ perceptions of the program. A mixed-methods design was employed with 267 pre-service and in-service vocational teachers in Indonesia. Quantitative data were analyzed using independent-samples t -tests, while qualitative reflective essays were analyzed through thematic analysis. The findings showed that in-service teachers reported significantly higher perceived gains than pre-service teachers in both 3D modeling and 3D printing. Female participants reported significantly greater perceived gains in 3D modeling than male participants, although this gender difference should be interpreted cautiously, given the small female subgroup. The qualitative results identified recurring themes related to technology usability, pedagogical value, visualization through physical modeling, and AI-supported lesson preparation. These findings suggest that the integrated professional development program was perceived as supportive of vocational teachers’ development of technical knowledge and instructional readiness for technology-enhanced engineering drawing. This study contributes to vocational teacher education by providing self-reported, reflective evidence on how participants perceived professional development to support the integration of 3DMP and AI-assisted instructional design. It also offers practical implications for designing more responsive and technology-oriented teacher development programs in vocational education.