Conditional citizens: Sexual orientation and American patriotism

This study extends the Generalized Group Dominance Perspective (GGDP) to sexuality as a dimension of social hierarchy, examining whether sexual minorities express lower patriotic attachment than heterosexuals. Using the 2020 American National Election Study data (N = 6601), I analyze identity-based and behavioral patriotism across sexual orientation groups while controlling for race, age, education, income, religion, and geography. Consistent with GGDP predictions, homosexual and bisexual respondents express significantly lower identity-based patriotism than heterosexuals. However, sexual minorities do not differ from heterosexuals in behavioral patriotism (flag display, purchasing American products), suggesting mechanisms specific to emotional attachment rather than outward performance. Race patterns prove to be more complex: Black, Asian, and Native American respondents show higher identity-based but lower behavioral patriotism than whites, indicating distinct pathways through which different hierarchies shape national attachment. Drawing on citizenship-studies scholarship and theories of heteronormative citizenship, I argue that sexuality effects reflect structural positioning as “conditional citizens” who reject American identity at the affective level while remaining embedded in citizenship practices.