Holocene hydroclimate events recorded by Mg-calcite and protodolomite in Lake Balaton (Hungary)

Lake Balaton, the largest shallow lake in Central Europe, is highly sensitive to evaporation–inflow balance and provides an important archive of Holocene hydroclimate change. We reconstructed Holocene lake-level and moisture-availability changes using a high-resolution multi-proxy sediment record integrating age-modelled sediment stratigraphy, micro-XRF geochemistry, stable isotopes (δ 13 C, δ 18 O), grain size, XRD mineralogy and nanoscale TEM characterization of carbonate phases to identify the climatic drivers of hydrological change. Two major evaporative phases at ∼8050–7350 and ∼5450–4500 cal yr BP are marked by elevated Mg/Ca ratios and synchronous δ 13 C and δ 18 O maxima, indicating strongly reduced inflow, enhanced evaporation and substantially lower lake levels. The earlier interval represents the strongest evaporative phase in the record and followed the 8.2 ka event. The later interval reflects fluctuating hydrological conditions and alternating low- and high-stand phases during the onset of Neoglacial cooling. The first evaporative event coincided with post-8.2 ka summer warming linked to reinvigoration of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), whereas the second corresponded to widespread mid-Holocene hydroclimatic instability across Europe and the Mediterranean. This event was followed by the deepest lake phase between 4500 and 1900 cal yr BP. Our results demonstrate that Lake Balaton sensitively recorded both North Atlantic and Mediterranean hydroclimate forcings and provide new evidence for prolonged post-8.2 ka summer drought and mid-Holocene hydrological instability in Central Europe.