Chinese learners' theories of effort, ability, and academic performance

Chinese students tend to perform well in school from preschool through college, yet they often hold a relatively fixed mindset of intelligence, which contrasts with a growth mindset. The growth mindset theory posits that holding an incremental view of intellectual ability motivates students to invest effort and achieve higher performance. To address this apparent cultural paradox, in this article, we describe a belief framework rooted in Chinese culture by examining how Chinese learners develop their understanding of the relations among three core elements of learning: effort, intellectual ability, and performance. We discuss how these learning beliefs are shaped by longstanding cultural traditions and the norm-based educational system in Chinese societies. We also highlight the importance of incorporating cultural perspectives into theories of learning beliefs, and we call for culturally informed ways to motivate learning.