Laser Cavity-Temperature and 3D Nonlinear Thermal Model of VCSEL From 2.6 to 130 K

Oxide-confined vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) operating from 2.6 to 295 K are investigated to establish reliable thermal design guidelines for cryogenic photonic interconnects. Lasing-wavelength shifts due to self-heating are converted to an effective cavity temperature through calibrated spectral thermometry. The 3D finite-element VCSEL model of semiconductor and oxide nanoscale layers is developed to solve the nonlinear heat-conduction equation with thermal conductivities dependent on temperature, material composition, and doping. The combined 3D modeling-and-measurement framework provides a predictive tool for engineering next-generation cryogenic VCSELs with reduced self-heating and improved reliability in high-speed superconducting computing links.