Mixed Methods Research and Quantum Theory: Q Methodology as an Exemplar for Complementarity

In 1989, Jennifer Greene and colleagues introduced the idea of complementarity in mixed methods research (MMR) without referencing the parallels within physics. Complementarity in physics represents the idea that two contrasted theories are necessary to explain a set of phenomena, such as the wave–particle duality. Few MMR studies provide clear examples of complementarity, and some have questioned if complementarity is possible. However, the creator of Q methodology, William Stephenson, physicist and psychologist, made numerous connections between his methodology and quantum theory, including complementarity. The purpose of this article is to describe complementarity within Q methodology and physics and connect these definitions to complementarity as discussed within the MMR community.