Backward Associations in the Pigeon

The learning of backward associations by pigeons during training of forward associations was studied in three experiments using a symbolic matching task. When the sample stimulus remained present with the comparison stimuli, no evidence of learning of backward associations was found with colors as comparison stimuli and either colors (Experiment I) or shapes (Experiment II) as sample stimuli. When the sample stimulus was removed on presentation of the comparison stimuli (Experiment III), evidence of backward associations was found, but only over the first few transfer trials. The data are contrasted with the strong evidence of learning of backward associations by humans. An association between two events may consist of two components, a forward association and a backward association. After training, evidence of the establishment of a forward association comes from an organism's ability to anticipate a second event, or its consequence, given a first event. Evidence of the establishment of a backward association comes from an