The Invasive Nature of an Infectious Bacterial Symbiont

Xenosomes are infectious bacterial symbionts that exist exclusively in the cytoplasm of the small philasterine marine ciliate Parauronema acutum. We have used this host‐symbiont system as a model to study infection. In the past we postulated that infection took place by a process in which the symbionts escaped digestion and entered into the host's cytoplasm through the food vacuole during phagocytosis. This is clearly not the case. We now present evidence based on electron microscopic observations that the symbionts infect in a manner involving direct penetration of the protozoan's cell membranes. We have obtained additional data that suggest that, following entrance of the symbionts into the cytoplasm, only a single xenosome is required to establish an infection.