Effects of Spacing and Color Perceptual Cues on Middle Schoolers’ Order-of-Operations Performance

Perceptual cues in instructional materials may help students notice structures of math notation and improve problem-solving performance. The present study examined whether and how congruent perceptual cues (spacing and color) affected students’ performance on order-of-operations problems and considered potential moderators. The analysis included 482 middle-school students, randomly assigned to one of three conditions: spacing (3 − 9 + 4×7), color (“4 × 7” highlighted in 3 − 9 + 4 × 7), or no cues. Students participated via an online platform during a 45-min block in their classrooms. Beyond examining performance during the experiment and posttest, we considered moderators of prior order-of-operations knowledge, perception of equivalence, and math anxiety. Neither congruent spacing nor congruent color affected performance on the experimental items or posttest. However, students with higher perception of equivalence benefited more from congruent spacing cues than students with lower perception of equivalence. Students with higher math anxiety struggled more during the experiment, but there was no moderation. Future work should include specific intervention scaffolding and feedback alongside the presentation of cues, as well as delve into variations in perceptual structures at the individual and problem levels to fully understand effects of perceptual cues on math problem-solving performance.