It is shown that all gravitationally bound systems - stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies - are positively charged and have a charge-to-mass ratio of the order of 100 coulombs per solar mass. The freely expanding intergalactic medium has a compensating negative charge. The immediate physical consequences of an electrically polarized universe are found to be extremely small.
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Bally et al. (1978) studied this question.
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