A review of carbon-based anode materials for LIBs: Properties, modifications, and perspectives

Carbon-based materials are the predominant anode choice for commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), owing to their excellent electrochemical properties, structural stability, and cost-effectiveness. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of three primary types of carbon-based anode materials: graphite, hard carbon, and soft carbon. It begins by elucidating the working principles of LIBs and the critical requirements for anode materials. Subsequently, the microstructure, lithium storage mechanisms, and electrochemical performance of each carbon type are discussed in detail. A significant focus is placed on their respective modification strategies, where we not only elaborate on techniques such as spheroidization, surface coating, and doping for graphite but also delve into the implementation methods and performance outcomes for hard carbon ( e.g ., elemental doping, compositing, pre-oxidation) and soft carbon ( e.g. , porosity control, carbonization temperature regulation). Furthermore, this work provides a comparative analysis of the performance enhancements achieved by different modification routes.Finally, this review outlines a roadmap for the future development of these carbon-based anodes, with a focus on their unique contributions to the realization of high-energy-density systems.