Reexamining the American Genocide Debate: Meaning, Historiography, and New Methods

Benjamin Madley is Assistant Professor of History at the University of California, Los Angeles. He earned a Ph.D. in history at Yale University and was an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow at Dartmouth College before coming to UCLA. A historian of the United States, Native America, and colonialism, he is the author of articles and book chapters addressing indigenous peoples and genocides in Africa, Australia, and North America, as well as Nazi mass murder in Europe. His first book, An American Genocide: The California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873, will be published by Yale University Press. Native Americans suffered a catastrophic demographic decline following sustained contact with Europeans. From a pre-contact population of perhaps 5,000,000 or more, the number of American Indians within the continental United States and its colonial antecedents fell to some 240,000 individuals by 1880–1900. The cataclysm thus ranks among the major long-term population disasters of world history. Some scholars assert that introduced diseases were the primary cause of this catastrophe, while others argue that colonialism, war, and diseases combined to wreak demographic devastation.1 Academics continue to debate whether or not Native Americans—or any groups of them—suffered genocide during the conquest and colonization of the Americas. It is a question that should matter not just to scholars and Native Americans, but to all U.S. citizens. Although the political and administrative boundaries of the United States have been imposed upon indigenous peoples, they form a cohesive unit of historical analysis with real meaning and repercussions for scholars, American Indians, and non-Indians in both the past and present. While the stakes of the debate as it relates to Native Americans may echo those in other genocide debates, new methods of inquiry will help to move this particular debate forward. Examining statements of genocidal intent, massacres, state-sponsored body-part bounties, and mass death in government custody can provide scholars with a rubric for locating, evaluating, or ruling out possible instances of genocide. Detailed case studies are crucial to this approach. They can reframe the debate by focusing on the question of genocide for particular tribes rather than all Native Americans. Applying these methods to two specific cases—Connecticut's Pequot Indians and California's Yuki Indians—suggests how this approach might then be used to locate and define other cases of genocide within and beyond the Americas.2 The near-annihilation of North America's indigenous peoples remains a formative event in U.S. history. Along with wars, real estate transactions of often questionable validity, the making and breaking of treaties, forced removal, confinement to reservations, and the 1887 Dawes Allotment Act, which reduced federally recognized Native American landholdings by about 90,000,000 acres, the American Indian population cataclysm played a central role in the clearing of hundreds of millions of acres for colonization. These lands, in turn, provided the vast geography and the cornucopia of natural resources upon which the modern United States was built. Thus, how we explain the Native American population catastrophe informs how we understand the making of the U.S. and its colonial origins. In 1622, the Mayflower passenger Robert Cushman wrote of America: “Our land is full … their land is empty. This then is a sufficient reason to prove our going thither to live lawful: their land is spacious and void, and they are few and do but run over the grass, as do also the foxes and wild beasts. They are not industrious, neither have [they] art, science, skill or faculty to use either the land or the commodities of it; but all spoils, rots, and is marred for want of manuring, gathering, ordering, etc.” Articulating the vacuum domicilium, or “empty domicile,” theory, which many would cite in attempting to justify their conquest and colonization of North America, Cushman claimed that American Indians did not inhabit their homelands fully enough, either in population density or in economic development, to justify their having legal ownership, particularly in so-called “empty” areas. Cushman was not alone in such thinking.3 In 1516, the English lawyer Thomas More anticipated that colonists would, and preachers John Donne and John Cotton and even Pennsylvania proprietor William Penn later asserted that legally they could, seize “voyde and vacannt,” “abandoned” or unfilled, “vacant,” and “Waste, or unculted Country.”4 The English philosopher and Carolina Colony secretary John Locke then contended in 1690 that colonists could obtain legal title to such Indian land with his “agricultural argument,” which suggested that agriculturally unimproved lands could be by those diseases such as and many Native American while the vacuum in some the of American Indian population decline as a natural by and the of “empty” Native American lands as a just to by but natural did of Native Americans, and scholars continue to the and of population the on as the of American Indian demographic decline to the role of in the population catastrophe and in the conquest of the United The of whether or not such genocide a of the role of in this cataclysm and whether or not some legal William of It an of the of genocide in the of U.S. or at that of some These are the question of whether genocide in the United States and its colonial antecedents should be on in in and in the stakes are for scholars, American Indians, and all U.S. citizens. the conquest and colonization of some of the United States, not the to Native American peoples, scholars will to and new could, for the that of such as the of rather than such as were the cause of death in or all and Native Americans. of U.S. that the United States is other also as genocides in the U.S. to other mass and within scholars a it will be to and as well as whether the event was of a or then to and out the do we not about these mass was genocide central to the making of the United its and the genocide question is particularly for the U.S. of Native American tribes for and of land genocidal tribes of genocide in cases and should Native American mass murder while also and The to genocide are also a that or he is a of both and might Native American of at the of the United their role might of genocide have on the in some Native American and that to and The question of genocide in the history of the United States and its colonial antecedents also and for all U.S. citizens. and are central government to Native Americans, as and W. did in the for the and of some Americans during are an to American Indians, the of the than that to of those Americans and their The question of is or the of mass by some of the with the of and of that the genocide and the genocides Native Americans those mass in and have been of some to Native Americans. In and the of the American Indian and the Native American and Act, which in that federally Native American and remains and Native Americans In the of the of Indian for that role in the of the and that the is and also of and and on a that it be as the of the of of U.S. and a introduced to a history of and by the United States Indian tribes and an to all Native on of the United The how suffered and … during … forced … during and on in and the in a form in This by that … of and the breaking of by the Indian It also … to all Native for the many instances of and on Native by of the United It by coming to the the as well as the and It is that scholars have the genocide or that it remains the American genocide debate is also to In the a new for an the United the on the and of the of which the following In the genocide any of the following with to in or in a or as of the or to of the on the of to about its in or in to within the of the to this new chapters on the American and Indians in North for two genocide that he was but he in before he could either In the and by the of the and a few and scholars the to historical American on genocide by the in published the first addressing genocide in the continental United States as a that genocide was of of Native American demographic but that in cases did it in The following the United States the with the of genocide studies was to and some of its on of genocide in colonial and the The of in the new that American Indians suffered genocide. In his book American American studies the of first contact and the of and genocide the American that while of can be genocide did particular Indian peoples … specific instances of genocide not the of American Indian then for focusing on genocide to the of the that in to and scholars also genocide Native Americans while studies suggested that genocide with the and the … scholars have that Native Americans suffered while of American Indians case studies of both genocidal and specific genocidal to the of genocide in few and case and the of and that historian to instances of genocide in North America, and in the United In other scholars have claimed that Native Americans or suffered genocide. In historian … as a of the vast of and In studies of the … an historian Robert asserted that the in to American Indians than a of the population of the United States, in the the of American Indians of mass In historian William that the Indians … and historian was American was it the of In historian that did not in but have the American genocide not all on genocide the debate in rather than the question on a This that a of genocide or not genocide be for the continental United States as a all of the first contact to the present. the debate to move both be The American genocide debate is in the to define a a particular with the but and are among the few it over both is and are the of groups to any while also the of genocidal to and In the of genocidal might … be as the of or all of a which are as genocide in beyond the of groups to any as that and in it are by the but genocide to mass in which a or other to a also the of but is an … to an genocide as to of or to a that government and than an It is a by an legal and case the United the and its and It remains the legal at it have or are to the In it is and a legal a of case The thus a for possible cases of The the American genocide debate a on the history of the continental United States, and the to the as genocidal or not This is a case of is in Native Americans and in the continental United States over and among and U.S. of which over hundreds of American Indian peoples, or some scholars on both of the debate have of particular in specific or during particular demographic This of specific case with explain the and It is to argue about genocide on a either or studies to a by case studies his upon the role of both genocidal and genocidal as did More genocide of and than of while the of genocidal intent, and genocidal as historian in is the on the colonial and North is not that the question of the by and remains a for case studies to provide the that will a and of and in the history of the United States and its colonial might such studies be and case studies first that be the possible of genocide. massacres, state-sponsored body-part bounties, and mass death in government custody are of locating, and cases of genocide. Some their to Native American peoples both before and as 1622, Colony to an Indian by … even to … the out for a the of the In of all Indians of or the Colony his of this to all of and all and a to … that can to this later to of should any of the be with in Thomas as wrote of the In for of wrote to of the and the are in our we it to to … these Indians, the should be their or their In and secretary of war, or American Indian and in he and their in The of American Indians during the was perhaps the first U.S. to genocide he wrote in we are to the any we will it that is or is beyond the war, they will some of we all of In Andrew the U.S. to Indians the with this the to these as it to the of to for Americans the of could to in the of that be the Indian is The of might be in this while such may of the of than genocide. in other to all Indian to a particular or In John of the U.S. wrote to a is to the and political such In of in an Indian than have in a Indian have have a that in the of his and be even the of Indian The following Indians were in the of the U.S. William that in the will be fully in their as as as to that the Indians are the Indians, but out of and to the case of the The that of political about genocide the of such by many even in the some statements may have been than those of political and to Thus, the to to be of genocidal alone do not genocide. were often the of The of as of or or or often by and with or in the American genocide they are of the number of the for a of the American genocide the of often those or and their may have genocide Native Americans. the can or at which as of a of a and as for in the out of the of of can help locate genocidal and genocidal John Indian John W. and and American … to a of of the United States of the Yale In Pennsylvania to death and at and The massacres, the of and Native Americans in are to the for a of the on which the is It is in Detailed of specific and Native American will a density of both and than is on this on the of and may be to the American Indian population as it is not to our for the to major scholars and move the number of Native Americans in American the demographic of these mass will be as even they do not approach the number of by This of Native Americans in are and but it is in The used are those to they are not the used by American Indians to by for Benjamin the used to this the body-part for Native and of and genocidal that in the history of the United States and its colonial The of is not in world and Native Americans but an of can in the American genocide they and its by provided both and legal to these to that of war, or in for the or of and and it was often to and to so-called Indians, or and or other of a often can help scholars genocidal of or these of genocidal state-sponsored such demographic beyond the of Indians to body-part with and thus of In may or or their genocide Native Americans. for Native American or in at or their or In during the Pequot the first in would the United the of of for of the … and of for of the Indians have our on for both Indian and in for … and for the genocidal of these by that were in than and the number of for to the of and may that the was to intent, the of and In during and introduced the first specific its for and for and Benjamin later to for may have been the first body-part in for the and and in and to for Indian for Native American in this case in In to have the first for the and of American Indian in it for or the of that be to for In for the of and of the the of during the with and for for Indian The then in and to and in and in and in Indian and and during the In for at Indian to Indian and and North and or bounties, while in and for to in and the in the in the government and In the of any or an American with The United States for or during while in and the of and which then of and The death was in having some U.S. and then and the American Indian within the United States, in of the University of California, Los Angeles. the for the of the of death in government custody can also be of or of the genocidal by the United of the or to of the on the of to about its in or in to within the and of the to and on to of Native Americans. More than of and during and their to in and Some while to in others of during the first they perhaps as a or of the of and to the of forced and confinement on reservations, such some to in than to their first In the the to and and perhaps not more, and the to in than a and by also in and while in some out of not than to death at Indian and some out of also in in the U.S. and of were and by of and mass Native American death the of massacres, body-part bounties, and mass death in government custody are of and cases of genocide. how this in American Indian in the other in of how these can be used to locate and define genocides in North and The Pequot Indians of of the genocides in would the United States, an event as the Pequot for were but their was the of the English John by Indians in were not with the Colony by both and and with of their This to of American John wrote Colony John to death the of but to the and and to and to to the to the of and other English and of for and some of their as which they should they were to obtain it by to out these to of his John Indians as could not and both and in the to many or the Indians of in the They not we on they to they are will are will and to the and A Pequot that the that and were not The English this and an the or will with The to and the English later that of the were and and that the Pequot and the to the the Some that the then we did to His was they should to which some will to and and by the of colonists in while an number of the by the and John to they a for a the to their their and of to for at Pequot This was perhaps the first in colonial U.S. history. The combined some the at while to was to by the and the He a to the Pequot and at on and the of on the with a of the of both in the of the wrote that as the was was that all should and the but and … of their the their Thus, were in the both and others forced and in to the Indians, and at a which our and with the of the fell and The English could have of they in with to by the many were in that remains but few to Indian in this and not of out of our to wrote that the were to the of or as some of while were about his published a of the and historian the Pequot of than of about In colonists just and about John of the or in and the of the It by and A and of of the The many but some to justify to and was the to the of that in to many on the in some that could and Indian it; that it is it is it is and many was but the and with their was was in the his and the of his … in the of his and the with their It was the and it is in our Some political and colonists also the the was a of in all the for the the Colony William later wrote that while was a to thus in and of and was but a and they the to for and all the the been an it would have a it was the of a state-sponsored following the some Pequot by the of their and to in and a all that they to their colonists and their Indian and their to been with the the an were or in the with the English at their the The Pequot the of this the and to A to to A of colonists the first the of in Pequot and on at of then they at before two Indian at the they and Indians in a English but at and while others in the then or those that they in their while or In the of to a on the to were by the to the number of in the of two and the to in other of were and Indians the at the of Pequot by Indian with genocidal The Pequot was of many instances in which a Indians Indians the with and that with … they might … and we may all for but will all the to and then with later a Pequot and … as then … many of and that he this would and all as they did and other and In a to all were they that could in their to the which to or the and of perhaps or to as all that to of the and of of and of how Indians about in many and and other while on the of that body-part some or all of this and be an colonists a the Pequot colonists and their an to two of all while and Some colonial The of their Pequot and their to the and that be but and and for the of any or to any English then and colonists used in an to the Pequot perhaps the of their Indian others and or were at to to on and or to in thus to and the Pequot genocidal and and In U.S. as many are of Pequot or the Pequot are not the American Indians genocide California's Yuki Indians a California's first United States the in by a of will continue to be … the Indian to In the U.S. then to the that would have of California as Indian lands, thus California Indians The first of Yuki than two the of the Yuki and as many as Yuki and some Yuki to In later that in Indians were and the were that been by or Indians have been that in first by the the Indians was and have … we would on an or Indians on a … we would have to out two or a and perhaps of Yuki Yuki and of and to and at a Indian wrote of Yuki and by and of Yuki they would all at would their and In Indians … have few of having been and the Yuki by for the first and with In Indian Thomas that would the of the is sufficient to the Indians and or the for to the but as with others such his fell on Yuki during the first of while some genocidal to the all the Indians and his could in the … that he did not want any to with to Indians, would not all he could a would a that a which but a with in the were they to the and the were out of their and a of was for a that he and his and or two The of Yuki that that in the of than a and Indians, and were by the the in was and the Indians and as they of or with at their or the that were the U.S. in the the not to or In an how the of … within the past to and have been have a of the have and … within the the even to that at Yuki it to be the of many of the to the also California John of on as a to or custody Yuki beyond the thus their with the U.S. of Indian that been for some past in a and of the Indians in this all with he in to or by Indians in in on and on A of genocidal In a to it may be … of will to the of the to two on then that to the number of was not to the that this was an to a they with the than of of and of their number and a of and while some it as of … and did not a role in this but in California to his and their for the Indians in the of the From A of in Indian of the Yale This an by in which he the of Yuki at of the Yuki at the with many that during the of on the the of the in and … they were with the of on the following to In Indians were just to of or more, in the form of while those did not In In a that Indians were the of death by a is for to a also claimed to have to and of just to also In these tribes which we we and been a of the In an Indian that … at of and of their Yuki while demographic Yuki on and the In that Indians were wild and The in but a was in and Yuki before This to have been the mass of Yuki and the Yuki population by or Although to the of Yuki and some are of California's Indian The Pequot and Yuki cases the of genocidal massacres, body-part bounties, and mass death in government custody to and define cases of genocide in Native American history and In both and to in or in a or as body-part bounties, and mass death in government custody provide of genocidal intent, as well as of genocidal or and on the of to about its in or in in and and may to within the and of the to the and of specific genocidal can also and rather than all and This approach the an with which to the question of genocide at any and in history. The case as a unit of analysis for the of whether or not a particular or suffered genocide. may be about genocide that can be by American Indian but for the of the American genocide and for with all Native Americans it colonial of to on particular studies are also often and to American Indian than all and millions of tribes as case