The Persistence of Folk Belief: Some Notes on Cannibalism and Zombis in Haiti

F OR many years the literature on Haiti has been replete with references to cases of cannibalism,' the appearance of zombis, and the transformation of human beings into animals. While some authors attempted to prove the existence of these phenomena, many others have attempted to show all these various accounts to be false and baseless slander. Yet at the center of this polemic which has continued for some seventy years,2 one point of substantial agreement seems to exist: it appears quite certain that the great majority of the Haitian population firmly believes in the existence of zombis, cannibalism, and the transformation of human beings into animals. It is this body of anecdotal material told by Haitians which is repeatedly cited by various authors to support the credence of the beliefs in question. In the following, we shall attempt to examine these beliefs from a somewhat different point of view. It is apparent that little has been gained, or can be gained, from a renewed attempt to prove or disprove the factual validity of these beliefs. Instead, we shall attempt to find out just what it is that the Haitian peasant believes with reference to these three subjects. We shall treat the accounts of these phenomena as folklore, and shall attempt to approach this folklore functionally. As long as these beliefs continue to exhibit the vitality that they have in the past, it matters little to the Haitian peasant whether or not we outsiders are willing to consider his belief to be based on acceptable evidence. These beliefs are held strongly; they influence behavior. They are the constant subject matter of conversation. Dismissing them because they seem to be without scientific support does not help us understand the cultural reality in which the Haitian peasant lives. In the following discussion, it is with precisely this cultural reality that we shall be concerned. In attempting a functional analysis, we shall first of all proceed to describe the beliefs themselves, and the interrelations among them. We shall then ask whether these beliefs are related to others aspects of the Haitian peasant's world view, culture, and interpersonal relations. It is our assumption that, if we can find such interrelations, it may be possible for us to see some of the functions that these beliefs fulfill, and thus the reason for their persisting vitality. What, then, do the Haitian peasants believe with reference to cannibalism? Haitian peasants use the expression mange moun 'to eat people' in what to the outsider appears to be a variety of different contexts. A great many anecdotes are told, for instance, in which evil priests or sorcerers (bokor) are accused of causing death. When it is added that this occurs because a bokor promises a victim to his personal deity, this appears to be a clear-cut instance of human sacrifice. Yet, in such cases, the same informant will explain, if asked, that it is not the bokor but the deity who kills (through illness) and thus eats the victim. Sometimes the bokor sacrifices a goat, which is said to represent the human victim, who succumbs shortly thereafter. Here