Development and educational evaluation of patient-specific 3D-printed breast phantoms for oncoplastic surgical training

Patient-specific 3D-printed breast models provide a high-fidelity, ethically sound alternative to traditional training platforms for oncoplastic surgery. They can improve anatomical understanding and procedural proficiency while reducing reliance on cadaveric specimens. Their reusability and customization potential support cost-effective, sustainable programmes, particularly in resource-limited environments. Two patient-specific breast models with embedded tumor lesions were fabricated using multimaterial PolyJet 3D printing and silicone post-processing, based on MRI datasets from two patients, one imaged prone and one supine. Six breast and reconstructive surgeons tested the models in a simulated surgical environment, performing training scenarios including mastectomy flaps, tumor excision, and perforator identification, and completed a structured 7-item questionnaire (5-point Likert scale) assessing usability, anatomical realism, educational value, and overall satisfaction; an overall usability metric was derived through a System Usability Scale (SUS)-like calculation. Surgeons reported high satisfaction regarding haptic realism and ease of use, with most items rated 4–5 on the Likert scale. The models enhanced procedural confidence, spatial understanding of breast anatomy, and educational engagement, and yielded a SUS-like score of 71.43, indicative of a positive user experience. Reusability and portability facilitated repeated practice without biosafety concerns, while durability showed greater variability across raters. Patient-specific 3D-printed breast phantoms provide a feasible, ethical, and educationally valuable platform for oncoplastic surgical training. This study suggests their potential to support skill acquisition and standardized training, and to reduce reliance on cadaveric specimens, supporting sustainable, cost-effective and pathology-integrated educational programs. However, larger, outcome-based studies are needed to confirm educational efficacy.